Abstract
In the relevant literature, several authors1 have described a variety of skills that are necessary to develop emotional competence and emotional self-efficacy, even psychological well-being, in social situations.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
We will use “HFASD” to designate high-functioning individuals with ASD and “IDASD” to indicate intellectually disabled individuals with ASD.
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Negative experiences are “bad” according to 2-year-old children; preschoolers differentiate between being “sad” and “angry”.
- 4.
Social references refers to “the use of one’s perceptions of another’s interpretations of a situation to form one’ own understanding of that situation” (Feinman, 1982, p. 445). In an interactive episode, this ability allows to seek out and use information in the reactions of others to guide one’s own responding in the contents of uncertainty or ambiguity. It includes three components: (a) the referent or the ambiguous object or event that evokes the solicitation of social information in the form of another’s response to that object or event; (b) the referrer or the individual who solicits the social information and whose behaviour is influenced by the social discriminative stimuli provided by another, and (c) the referee or the individual who provides discriminative stimuli in the presence of the referent, which influence the referrer’s behaviour (Feinman et al., 1992). According to these authors, the social referencing conditions vary with modalities of communication (single, e.g. facial expression; or multiple, e.g. facial, verbal and gestural cues) and also with regard to the affective content of the referencing message conveyed by the referee concerning the referent [positive messages (e.g. joy) or negative messages (e.g. fear and disgust)]. After the communicated message, the person may display behaviour of approach, contact or affective responding.
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Frontal brain regions are specifically more active during ToM tasks than during control tasks, but there is relatively little agreement on the exact sub-regions involved (Baron-Cohen et al., 1994; Fletcher et al., 1995). Baron-Cohen et al. (1994) reported an increased activation in the right orbito-frontal regions. Fletcher et al. (1995) used stories requiring mental state attribution, a skill difficult for even high-functioning children with ASD and found through PET imaging that left medial frontal regions were significantly more active during the task. See also the synthesis by Frith (2001).
- 7.
Recently, Le Sourn-Bissaoui, Caillies, Gierski, and Motte (2009) examined in which measure ToM competence (notably false belief) could play a role in processing of causal, predictive and pragmatic inferences in 10 adolescents with Asperger syndrome and 10 controls matched for CA, sex and verbal IQ. The adolescents with Asperger syndrome had greater difficulty processing inferences (both semantic and pragmatic) than did the controls, and their ToM could subtend inference drawing.
- 8.
ID is the abbreviation to designate intellectual disabilities or intellectually disabled.
- 9.
In the video sequence, a young man enquires about a painting hanging on a distant wall. First, he points to a specific painting (among several paintings) on the wall and second he asks, by a general question, the older man who did the painting. The pointing specified which painting is evoked by the young man.
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This video sequence illustrates behaviour and expressions displayed by two characters (a man and a woman) notably showing surprise and horror in their eye expression (particularly in the man).
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Compared with 65 typical developers in three control groups (11 AC-matched primary schoolers; 37 ToM-matched preschoolers and 17 adults).
- 12.
Recent observations also found evidence for these effects in younger children; less scanning of the eyes was found in the case of a 15-month-old infant with ASD (Klin & Jones, 2008). Klin et al. (2002b) showed that adolescents with ASD scanned dynamic social scenes in a deviant way. Compared to controls, the group with ASD showed heightened scanning of the mouth, bodies and objects, at the expense of scanning of the eyes.
- 13.
Grossman & Tager-Flusberg (2008) explored the processing of pseudo-dynamic facial emotions and visual speech in 25 adolescents with ASD, compared with 25 typical adolescents, and examined their ability to recreate the sequences of four dynamic emotional facial expressions (happy, sad, disgust and fear) as well as four spoken words (with, bath, thumb and watch) using six still images taken from a video sequence. Typical adolescents performed significantly better at recreating the dynamic properties of emotional expressions than did those of facial speech, while the ASD group showed the reverse accuracy pattern. When the eye region was obscured, no significant difference appeared between the 22 adolescents with ASD and 22 typical controls. Specifically, fearful faces achieved the highest accuracy results among the emotions in both groups.
- 14.
The SP (most appropriate for ages 5–10) is a 125-item questionnaire that describes responses to sensory events in daily life and measures the degree to which children exhibit problems in sensory processing, modulation, behavioural and emotional responses, and responsiveness to sensory events. The caregiver reports how frequently the child uses that response to particular sensory events and they are classified in comparison to how a typically developing child responds to the same sensory input.
- 15.
In this instance, the person may select the situation (according to the probability of desirable or non-desirable emotions); modify the situation (according to emotional impact); focus her attention only on particular aspects of the situation; operate a cognitive change about the meaning of this situation in order to appreciate her abilities to affront to it; and finally, regulate her emotional, behavioural, verbal and physiological responses (Eisenberg et al., 2006; Gross, 1998; Luminet, 2002; Philippot, 2007).
- 16.
Emotional intelligence corresponds to abilities of control, of discrimination of our own emotions, those in others and of the utilisation of these indications in order to guide our actions and thoughts.
- 17.
Brun and Mellier (2004) conceived an evolution of three types of emotional regulation. First, the “intra-personal regulation” includes vigilance, regulation of stress and the application of emotional representations. Second, the “inter-individual regulation in imaginary situation” refers to the recognition of facial expressions, to evocation, to identification of mental states and to the understanding of emotional terms and it allows reflecting the child’s level of emotional knowledge. Third, “the interpersonal regulation in interactive situation” concerns the emotional language, shared and joint attention, empathy and the searching of social reference on others’ face.
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Several tasks have been conceived in order to assess facial expression processing and face processing in people with developmental disorders in a battery of social and emotional cognition (Hippolyte, Barisnikov, Van der Linden, & Detraux, 2009).
- 19.
For training facial emotional recognition in children and adolescents with ASD (Swettenham, Baron-Cohen, Gomez, & Walsh, 1996).
- 20.
Several intervention programs towards people with ASD trained emotional recognition by using multimedia supports (Golan & Baron-Cohen, 2006b), for example “Gaining Face” (http://www.ccoder.com/GainingFace, Stone Mountain software), “Emotion Trainer” (Silver, 2000), “Mind Reading-Emotion Library” (Baron-Cohen, 2004), “VisTA” (Pollak & Sinha, 2002). Stewart and Singh (1995) trained facial emotional recognition in ID children by using the “Facial Action Coding System” (Ekman & Friesen, 1977, 1978).
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- 22.
See Brim et al., 2009.
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- 24.
- 25.
Barisnikov, Hippolyte, Urben, and Pizzo (2009) developed a battery of social cognition assessment, adapted for individuals with ID, including several subtests.
- 26.
Multiple adaptations of classic ToM testing are elaborated in order to adjust them according to cultural environment and to functioning of atypical children or adolescents with developmental disorders (including ASD or ID; see Thirion-Marissiaux & Nader-Grosbois, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c). In addition, some instruments or standardized questionnaires used to evaluate child’s social behaviours in daily life include items about ToM (for example, EASE; Hugues, Soares-Boucaud, Hochman, & Frith, 1997).
See Charlop-Christy and Daneshvar (2003); Feng, Lo, & Tsai, 2008; Gevers, Clifford, Mager, & Boer, 2006; Hadwin et al., 1996, 1997; LeBlanc et al., 2003; McGregor, Whiten, & Blackburn, 1998; Ozonoff & Miller, 1995; Parsons & Mitchell, 1999; Steerneman, Jackson, Pelzer, & Muris, 1996; Swettenham, 1996; Swettenham et al., 1996; Wellman, Hollander, & Schult, 1996, 2002 for efficient training of ToM abilities, with various tasks and supports. Howlin, Baron-Cohen and Hadwin (1999) developed the “Teaching Children with Autism to Mind-Read: A Practical Guide”. Softwares are also used to train ToM emotions, notably “Emotion Trainer” (Silver & Oakes, 2001; Silver, 2000) and “Mind Reading: The Interactive Guide to Emotions – Learning Centre & Games Zone” (Baron-Cohen, 2004). During parent–child interactions, training conversations on mental states, beliefs and emotions (Cassidy et al., 1998; Dyer, Shatz, & Wellman, 2000; LaBounty, Wellman, & Olson, 2008; Nader-Grosbois, 2009, 2011; Ontai & Thompson, 2002; Peterson & Slaughter, 2003).
- 27.
“Social Responsiveness Scale” (SRS; Constantino & Gruber, 2005) includes items covering social cognition and social awareness in order to best discriminate social behaviours in ASD; a preschool version of SRS was conceived by Pine, Luby, Abbacchi, and Constantino (2006). Among the items of “Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters” (MESSY; Matson, Rotatori, & Helsel, 1983) to read to the parents in an interview, it is also possible to emphasize some problematic behaviours in children with ASD related to emotional and social cognition, notably making eye contact, smiling at people they know, initiating social conversation and saying thank you. Barisnikov et al. (2009) elaborated subtests assessing knowledge of social rules and social problem solving in their battery. For training socio-emotional skills by scenarios, Gray (1994, 2004; Gray & Garand, 1993) elaborated “Comic Strip Conversations”, “Social Stories”; McAfee (2001), “Navigating the Social World”.
- 28.
Nader-Grosbois (2009) and her colleagues elaborated several instruments and designs to assess emotional regulation in children with and without developmental disorders and their parents’ external regulation.
“The Incredible 5-point Scale: Assisting Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders” helps to understand social interactions and control their emotional responses (Buron & Curtis, 2004). Riggs, Greenberg, Kusche, and Pentz (2006) showed an improvement of self-control and a decreasing of behaviour disorders by applying the “Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies” (PATHS, Kusché & Greenberg, 1994).
- 29.
The “Social Skills Rating System” (SSRS; Gresham & Elliott, 1990) includes an area of ability of empathy. Parents may also complete the “Day-to-Day Child Empathy Questionnaire” (DCEQ, Hudry & Slaughter, 2009).
Valdivia-Salas, Luciano, Gutierrez-Martinez, and Visdomine (2009) provide a set of guidelines in order to sustain the development of empathy in a structured way, in referring to stages of empathy, on the basis of evoked experiences and events, and to facilitate the children’s understanding of their own and others’ emotions, and empathic behaviour.
- 30.
Gutstein (2000), in the “Solving the Relationship Puzzle”, described method of scaffolding children with ASD in order to discover themselves in their daily life interactions and create significant relationships in which they may share their emotions with privileged people.
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Nader-Grosbois, N., Day, J.M. (2011). Emotional Cognition: Theory of Mind and Face Recognition. In: Matson, J., Sturmey, P. (eds) International Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders. Autism and Child Psychopathology Series. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8065-6_9
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