Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Developmental, Individual Difference, Relationship-Based (DIR) Model

  • Reference work entry
Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders

Definition

The Developmental, Individual Difference, Relationship-Based model of intervention (DIR) provides a developmental framework for interdisciplinary assessment and intervention for autism spectrum and related disorders. It is a comprehensive foundation model that utilizes affect-based interactions and experiences tailored to individual needs to promote development. “D” refers to fundamental capacities for joint attention and regulation, engagement across a wide range of emotions, two-way communication, and complex social problem solving which underlie the development of symbol formation, language, and intelligence. Intervention starts with pleasurable interactions between children and parents that are at the heart of building the relationships that support developmental progress. “I” refers to individual differences related to sensory reactivity and regulation, visual-spatial and auditory/language processing, and purposeful movement. Challenges in these neurobiological factors...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 1,799.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References and Readings

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21, 37–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capps, L., Sigman, M., & Mundy, P. (1994). Attachment security in children with autism. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 249–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casenheiser, D. M., Shanker, S. G., & Stieben, J. (2011). Learning through interaction in children with autism: preliminary data from a social-communication-based intervention. Autism, published online 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., & Galpert, I. (1990). Mother’s use of imitative play for facilitating social responsiveness and toy play in young autistic children. Developmental Psychopathology, 2, 151–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gernsbacher, M. (2006). Toward a behavior of reciprocity. Journal of Developmental Processes, 1, 139–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S. (1992). Infancy and early childhood: The practice of clinical assessment and intervention with emotional and developmental challenges. Madison, CT: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S. (2004). Greenspan social-emotional growth chart: A screening questionnaire for infants and young children. Bulverde, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S., DeGangi, G., & Wieder, S. (2001). The functional emotional assessment scale (FEAS) for infancy and early childhood: Clinical and research applications. Bethesda, MD: Interdisciplinary Council on Developmental and Learning Disorders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S. I., & Lourie, R. S. (1981). Developmental structuralist approach to the classification of adaptive and pathologic personality organization: Application to infancy and early childhood. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 725–735.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S., & Shanker, S. (2004). The first idea: How symbols, language and intelligence evolved from our primate ancestors to modern humans. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S., & Wieder, S. (1997). Developmental patterns and outcomes in infants and children with disorders in relating and communicating: A chart review of 200 cases of children with autistic spectrum diagnoses. Journal Developmental Learning Disorders, 1, 87–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S., & Wieder, S. (1998). The child with special needs: Encouraging intellectual and emotional growth. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S., & Wieder, S. (2000). Principles of clinical practice for assessment and intervention. Developmentally appropriate interactions and practices. Developmentally based approach to the evaluation process. In Interdisciplinary Council on Developmental and Learning Disorders Clinical Practice Guidelines (pp. 261–282). Bethesda, MD: Interdisciplinary Council on Developmental and Learning Disorders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S., & Wieder, S. (2005). Can children with autism master the core deficits and become empathetic, creative and reflective? A ten to fifteen year follow-up of a subgroup of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) who received a comprehensive developmental, individual-difference, relationship-based (DIR) approach. Journal Developmental & Learning Disorders, 9, 39–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S., & Wieder, S. (2006). Engaging autism: The Floortime approach to helping children relate, communicate, and think. Cambridge, MA: DaCapo Press/Perseus Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S. I., & Wieder, S. (2011). Relationship-based early intervention approach to autistic spectrum disorders: The DIR model 1068. In D. G. Amaral, G. Dawson, & D. H. Geschwind (Eds.), Autism spectrum disorders (pp. 1068–1080). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenspan, S., Wieder, S., Lieberman, A., Nover, R., Lourie, R., & Robinson, M. (1987). Infants in multirisk families: Case studies in preventive intervention. Clinical infant reports: No. 3. New York: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gulsrud, A. C., Jahromi, L. B., & Kasari, C. (2010). The co-regulation of emotions between mothers and their children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 227–237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutstein, S. E., & Sheely, R. K. (2002). Relationship development intervention with young children: Social and emotional developmental activities for Asperger syndrome, autism, PDD and NLD. London: Jessica Kingsley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutstein, S. (2005). Relationship development intervention: Developing a treatment program to address the unique social and emotional deficits of autism spectrum disorders. Autism Spectrum Quarterly (Winter).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kasari, C., Freeman, S., & Paparella, T. (2006). Joint attention and symbolic play in young children with autism: A randomized controlled intervention study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 611–620.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kasari, C., Freeman, S. F. N., Paparella, T., & Jahromi, L. B. (2008). Language outcome in autism: Randomized comparison of joint attention and play interventions. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 76, 125–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kasari, C., Paparella, T., Freeman, S., & Jahromi, L. B. (2008). Language outcome in autism: Randomized comparison of joint attention and play interventions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(1), 25–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasari, C., Sigman, M., Yirmiya, N., & Mundy, P. (1994). Affective development and communication in young children with autism. In A. Kaiser & D. B. Gray (Eds.), Enhancing children’s communication: Research foundations for intervention. Baltimore: Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koegel, R. I., Koegel, L. K., Harrower, J. K., & Carter, C. M. (1999). Pivotal response intervention1: Overview of approach. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps., 24, 174–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., & McGee, J. (2001). Educating children with autism. Washington, DC: National Research Council National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney, G., & Perales, F. (2005). A comparison of the impact of relationship-focused intervention on young children with pervasive developmental disorders and other disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 26, 77–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, L. J., Coll, J. R., & Schoen, S. A. (2007). A randomized controlled pilot study of the effectiveness of occupational therapy for children with sensory modulation disorder. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 61, 228–238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Minshew, N., Goldstein, D., & Siegel, D. (1997). Neuropsychologic functioning in autism: Profile of a complex information processing disorder. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 3, 303–316.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mostofsky, S., Dubai, P., Jerath, V., Jansiewicz, E., Goldberg, M., & Denckla, M. (2006). Developmental dyspraxia is not limited to imitation in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 12, 314–326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mostofsky, S. H., Burgess, M. P., & Gidley Larson, J. C. (2007). Increased motor cortex white mater volume predicts motor impairment in autism. Brain (130), 2117–2122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mundy, P., Sigman, M., & Kasari, C. (1990). A longitudinal study of joint attention and language development in autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 20, 115–128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oppenheim, D. (2009). Maternal insightfulness and resolution of diagnosis are associated with secure attachment in preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders. Child Development, 80, 519–527.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfeiffer, B. A., Koenig, K., Kinnealey, M., Sheppard, M., & Henderson, L. (2011). Research scholars initiative – effectiveness of sensory integration interventions in children with autism spectrum disorders: A pilot study. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 65, 76–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prizant, B., Wetherby, A., Rubin, E., & Laurent, A. (2003). The SCERTS model: A transactional, family-centered approach to enhancing communication and socioemotional abilities of children with autism spectrum disorder. Infants and Young Children, 16, 296–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S. J., & Dawson, G. (2010). Early start Denver model for young children with autism. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S., Herbison, J., Lewis, H., Pantone, J., & Reis, K. (1986). An approach for enhancing the symbolic, communicative, and interpersonal functioning of young children with autism and severe emotional handicaps. Journal of the Division of Early Childhood, 10, 135–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S., & Lewis, H. (1989). An effective day treatment model for young children with pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 207–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S. J., Ozonoff, S., & Maslin-Cole, C. (1993). Developmental aspects of attachment behavior in young children with pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 1274–1282.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1991). A theoretical approach to the deficits in infantile autism. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 137–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schreibman, L., & Koegel, R. L. (2005). Training for parents of children with autism: Pivotal responses, generalization, and individualization of intervention. In E. D. Hibbs & P. S. Jensen (Eds.), Psychosocial treatment for child and adolescent disorders: Empirically based strategies for clinical practice (pp. 605–631). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seida, J., Ospina, M., Karkhaneh, M., Hartling, L., Smith, V., & Clark, B. (2009). Systematic reviews of psychosocial interventions for autism: An umbrella review. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 51, 95–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, D. (2001). Toward an interpersonal neurobiology of the developing mind: Attachment, “mindsight,” and neural integration. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 67–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siller, M., & Sigman, M. (2002). The behavior of parents of children with autism predict the subsequent development of their children’s communication. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disords, 32, 77–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, R., Necheles, J., Ferch, D., & Bruckman, D. (2007). Pilot study of a parent training program for young children with autism: The P.L.A.Y. project home consultation model. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 11, 205–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spreckley, M., & Boyd, R. (2009). Efficacy of applied behavioral intervention in preschool children with autism for improving cognitive, language, and adaptive behavior: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Pediatrics, 154, 338–344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vismara, L., & Rogers, S. J. (2009). Can one hour per week of therapy lead to lasting changes in children with autism? Autism, 13(1), 93–115.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, K. S., & Rogers, S. J. (2010). Intervening in infancy: Implications for autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(12), 1300–1320.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wetherby, A. M., Prizant, B. M., & Hutchinson, T. (1998). Communicative, social-affective and symbolic profiles of young children with autism and pervasive developmental disorders. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 7, 79–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieder, S. (1996). Climbing the “symbolic ladder”: Assessing young children’s symbolic and representational capacities through observation of free play interaction. In S. Meisels & E. Fenichel (Eds.), New visions for the developmental assessment of infants and young children (pp. 267–287). Washington, DC: Zero to Three.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieder, S. (2011). DIR: Developmental, individual-difference, relationship-based model: A dynamic model for the 21st century. In D. Zager, M. Wehmeyer, & R. Simpson (Eds.), Research-based principles and practices for educating students with autism (pp. 82–98). New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieder, S., & Greenspan, S. (2001) The DIR (Developmental, Individual-difference, Relationship-based) approach to assessment and intervention planning. Zero to Three, 21, 11–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieder, S., & Greenspan, S. (2003). Climbing the symbolic ladder in the DIR model through floortime/interactive play. Autism, 7, 425–436.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. L., & Minshew, N. J. (2007). Understanding autism and related disorders: What has imaging taught us? Neuroimaging Clinics of North America, 17(IV), 495–509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zwaigenbaum, L., Bryson, S., Lord, C., Rogers, S., Carter, A., Carver, L., et al. (2009). Clinical assessment and management of toddlers with suspected autism spectrum disorder: Insights from studies of high-risk infants. Pediatrics, 123, 1383–1391.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Profectum Foundation, 140 Riverside Drive, New York, NY, 10024, USA

    Dr. Serena Wieder (Clinical Director)

Authors
  1. Dr. Serena Wieder
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Serena Wieder .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Irving B. Harris Professor of Child Psychiatry, Pediatrics and Psychology Yale University School of Medicine, Chief, Child Psychiatry Children's Hospital at Yale-New Haven Child Study Center, New Haven, CT, USA

    Fred R. Volkmar (Director, Child Study Center) (Director, Child Study Center)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this entry

Cite this entry

Wieder, S. (2013). Developmental, Individual Difference, Relationship-Based (DIR) Model. In: Volkmar, F.R. (eds) Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_615

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_615

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-1697-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-1698-3

  • eBook Packages: Behavioral Science

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation