Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Parental Combat Injury and Early Child Development: A Conceptual Model for Differentiating Effects of Visible and Invisible Injuries

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Psychiatric Quarterly Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The injuries (physical and emotional) sustained by service members during combat influence all members of a family system. This review used a systemic framework to conceptualize the direct and indirect effects of a service member’s injury on family functioning, with a specific focus on young children. Using a meta-ethnographic approach to synthesize the health research literature from a variety of disciplines, this review makes relevant linkages to health care professionals working with injured veterans. Studies were included that examined how family functioning (psychological and physical) is impacted by parental illness; parental injury; and posttraumatic stress disorder. The synthesis of literature led to the development of a heuristic model that illustrates both direct and indirect effects of parental injury on family functioning and the development of young children. It further illustrates the contextual factors or moderating variables that buffer detrimental effects and promote family resilience. This model can be a foundation for future research, intervention, and policy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Cozza S, Lieberman A: The young military child: Our modern Telemachus. Journal of Zero to Three 27:27–33, 2007

    Google Scholar 

  2. Tanielian T, Jaycox LH: Invisible Wounds of War: Psychological and Cognitive Injuries, Their Consequences, and Services to Assist Recovery. Santa Monica, CA, Rand Monographs, 2008

    Google Scholar 

  3. Hoge C, McGurk D, Thomas J, et al.: Mild traumatic brain injury in US soldiers returning from Iraq. The New England Journal of Medicine 358(5):453–463, 2008

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Mental Health Advisory Team V: Operation Iraqi Freedom 06–08, MHAT-V Report. Washington, DC, U.S. Department of the Army, Office of the Surgeon General Mental Health Advisory Team (MHAT) V, 2008

  5. Booth B, Segal MW, Bell DB, et al.: What we know about army families. Accessed at http://www.army.mil/fmwrc/documents/research/whatweknow2007.pdf on February 5, 2008

  6. Ryan D: Navy Researchers Keep Eye on 90,000 Babies A Year. Accessed at http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=29439 on 11 March, 2009

  7. Fivaz-Depeursine E, Fitzgerald HE, Guedeney A, et al.: The infant’s relational worlds: Family, community, and culture. Infant Mental Health Journal 29:175–176, 2008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Dale B, Altschuler J: In sickness and in health: The development of alternative discourses in work with families with parental illness. Journal of Family Therapy 21:267–283, 1999

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Diareme S, Tsiantis J, Romer G, et al.: Mental health support for children of parents with somatic illness: A review of the theory and intervention concepts. Families, Systems, & Health 25:98–118, 2007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Romer G, Barkmann C, Schulte-Markwort M, et al.: Children of somatically ill parents: A methodologic review. Clinical Child Psychological Psychiatry 7:17–38, 2002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Danieli Y: Treatment and Prevention of Long-term Effects and Intergenerational Transmission of Victimization: A Lesson from Holocaust Survivors and Their Children. In: Figley CR (Ed) Trauma and Its Wake. New York, Basic Books, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  12. Davidson AC, Mellor DJ: The adjustment of children of Australian Vietnam veterans: Is there evidence for the transgenerational transmission of the effects of war-related trauma? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 35:345–351, 2001

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Solomon Z, Kotler M, Mikulincer M: Combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder among second-generation Holocaust survivors: Preliminary findings. The American Journal of Psychiatry 145:865–868, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Yehuda R, Halligan SL, Grossman R: Childhood trauma and risk for PTSD: Relationship to intergenerational effects of trauma, parental PTSD, and cortisol excretion. Development and Psychopathology 13:733–753, 2001

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Loukas A, Twitchell GR, Piejak LA, et al.: The Family as a Unity of Interacting Personalities. In: L’Abate L (Ed) Handbook of Family Psychopathology. New York, Guilford, 1998

    Google Scholar 

  16. Hoge CW, Castro CA, Messer SC, et al.: Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems and barriers to care. The New England Journal of Medicine 351(1):13–22, 2004

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Lyons-Ruth K, Zeanah CH: The Family Context of Infant Mental Health II: Infant Development in Multiple Family Relations. In: Zeanah CH, Jr (Ed) Handbook of Infant Mental Health. New York, Guilford, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  18. Crockenberg S, Lyons-Ruth K, Dickstein S: The Family Context of Infant Mental Health II: Infant Development in Multiple Family Relationships. In: Zeanah CH, Jr. (Ed) Handbook of Infant Mental Health. New York, Guilford, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  19. Skinner H, Steinhauer P, Sitarenios G: Family Assessment Measure (FAM) and Process Model of family functioning. Journal of Family Therapy 22:190–210, 2000

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Noblit GW, Hare RD: Meta-Ethnography: Synthesizing Qualitative Studies. Newbury Park, CA, Sage, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  21. Urbach JR, Nonenklar NA, Culbert JP: Risk factors and assessment in children of brain-injured parents. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 6:289–295, 1994

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Oddy M, Herbert C: Intervention with families following brain injury: Evidence-based practice. Neurosychological Rehabilitation 13:259–273, 2003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Butera-Prinzi F, Perlesz A: Through children’s eyes: Children’s experience of living with a parent with an acquired brain injury. Brain Injury 18:83–101, 2004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Jones FD: Psychiatric Lessons of War. In: Jones FD, Sparacino LR, Wilcox VL, et al. (Eds) War Psychiatry. Washington, DC, Borden Institute, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  25. Shay J: Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character. New York, Atheneum, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  26. Weinstein EA, Salazar AM, Jones FD: Behavioral Consequences of Traumatic Brain Injury. In: Jones FD, Sparacino LR, Wilcox VL, et al. (Eds) War Psychiatry. Washington, DC, Borden, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  27. Hoge CW, Terhakopian A, Castro CA, et al.: Association of posttraumatic stress disorder with somatic symptoms, health care visits, and absenteeism among Iraq war veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry 164:150–153, 2007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Urbach JR: The impact of parental head trauma on families with children. Psychiatric Medicine 7:17–36, 1989

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Rolland JS: Parental illness and disability: A family systems framework. Journal of Family Therapy 21:242–266, 1999

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Lefebvre H, Pelchat D, Swaine B, et al.: The experiences of individuals with a traumatic brain injury, families, physicians and health professionals regarding care provided throughout the continuum. Brain Injury 19:585–597, 2005

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Weinstein EA: Disabling and Disfiguring Injuries. In: Jones FD, Sparacino LR, Wilcox VL, et al. (Eds) War Psychiatry. Washington, DC, Borden Institute, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  32. Patterson DR, Everett JJ, Bombardier CH, et al.: Psychological effects of severe burn injuries. Psychological Bulletin 113:362–378, 1993

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Helm PA, Walker SC: Return to work after burn injury. Journal of Burn Care and Rehabilitation 13:53–57, 1992

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Grieger TA, Cozza SJ, Ursano RJ, et al.: Posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in battle-injured soldiers. American Journal of Psychiatry 163:1777–1783, 2006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Zatzick DF, Kang SM, Müller HG, et al.: Predicting posttraumatic distress in hospitalized trauma survivors with acute injuries. American Journal of Psychiatry 159:941–946, 2002

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Bowlby J: Attachment: Volume I: Attachment and Loss. New York, Basic Books, 1969

    Google Scholar 

  37. Ruscio AM, Weathers FW, Kings LA, et al.: Male war-zone veterans’ perceived relationships with their children: The importance of emotional numbing. Journal of Traumatic Stress 15:351–357, 2002

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Dyer KFW, Bell R, McCann J, et al.: Aggression after traumatic brain injury: Analysing socially desirable responses and the nature of aggressive traits. Brain Injury 20:1163–1173, 2006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Kim E: Agitation, aggression, and disinhibition syndromes after traumatic brain injury. NeuroRehabilitation 17:297–310, 2002

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Lauterbach D, Bak C, Reiland S, et al.: Quality of parental relationships among persons with a lifetime history of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress 20:161–172, 2007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Belsky J, Isabella R: Maternal, Infant, and Social-Contextual Determinants of Attachment Security. In: Belsky J, Nezworski T (Eds) Clinical Implications of Attachment. Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum, 1988

  42. Stroufe LA: Attachment and development: A prospective longitudinal study from birth to adulthood. Attachment and Human Development 7:349–367, 2005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Thompson RA: The Individual Child: Temperament, Emotion, Self, and Personality. In: Bornstein MH, Lamb ME (Eds) Developmental Psychology: An Advanced Textbook, 4th edn. Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  44. Waters E: The reliability and stability of individual differences in infant-mother attachment. Child Development 49:483–494, 1978

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Zeanah CH, Smyke AT: Attachment disorders in family and social context. Infant Mental Health Journal 29:219–233, 2008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. The Timing and Quality of Early Experiences Combine to Shape Brain Architecture: Working Paper #5. Accessed at http://www.developingchild.net on June 27, 2008

  47. Drell MJ, Siegel CH, Gaensbauer EG: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. In: Zeanah CH, Jr. (Eds) Handbook of Infant Mental Health. New York, Guilford, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  48. Gaensbauer TJ: Commentary by Theodore J. Gaensbauer, M.D.: Intergenerational transmission of trauma: The infant’s experience. Infant Mental Health Journal 24:520–526, 2003

    Google Scholar 

  49. Scheeringa MS, Zeanah CH: A relational perspective on PTSD in early childhood. Journal of Traumatic Stress 14:799–815, 2001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Lyons-Ruth K, Alpern L, Repacholi B: Disorganized attachment classification and maternal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile-aggressive behavior in the preschool classroom. Child Development 64:572–585, 1993

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Caselli LT, Motta RW: The effect of PTSD and combat level on Vietnam veterans’ perceptions of child behavior and marital adjustment. Journal of Clinical Psychology 51:4–12, 1995

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Glenn DM, Beckham JC, Feldman ME, et al.: Violence and hostility among families of Vietnam veterans with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Violence and Victims 17:473–489, 2002

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Jordan BK, Marmar CR, Fairbank JA, et al.: Problems in families of male Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 60:916–926, 1992

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Mikail SF, von Baeyer CL: Pain, somatic focus, and emotional adjustment in children of chronic headache sufferers and controls. Social Science Medicine 31:51–59, 1990

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Pessar LF, Coad ML, Linn RT, et al.: The effect of parental traumatic brain injury on the behavior of parents and children. Brain Injury 7:231–240, 1993

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Rickard K: The occurrence of maladaptive health-related behaviors and teacher-rated conduct problems in children of chronic low back pain patients. Journal of Behavior Medicine 11:107–116, 1988

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Armistead L, Klein K, Forehand R: Parental physical illness and child functioning. Clinical Psychology Review 15:409–422, 1995

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Cole R, Reiss D: How do Families Cope with Chronic Illness? Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  59. Hyatt RR, Jr., Allen SM: Disability as a “family affair”: Parental disability and childhood immunization. Medical Care 43:600–606, 2005

    Google Scholar 

  60. Jamison RN, Walker LS: Illness behavior in children of chronic pain patients. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine 22:329–342, 1992

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Ainsworth MD, Blehar MC, Waters E, et al.: Patterns of Attachment. Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum, 1978

    Google Scholar 

  62. Belsky J: Interactional and Contextual Determinants of Attachment Security. In: Cassidy J, Shaver PR (Eds) Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. New York, Guilford, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  63. Gorman LA, Fitzgerald HE: Ambiguous loss, family stress, and infant attachment during times of war. Zero to Three 7:20–26, 2007

    Google Scholar 

  64. Cassidy J: Attachment and Generalized Anxiety Disorder. In: Cicchetti D, Toth SL (Eds) Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology: Vol. 6: Emotion, Cognition, and Representation. Rochester, NY, University of Rochester Press, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  65. Anderson CA, Hammen CL: Psychosocial outcomes of children of unipolar depressed, bipolar, medically ill, and normal women: A longitudinal study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 61:448–454, 1993

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Hammen C, Gordon D, Burge D, et al.: Maternal affective disorder, illness, and stress: Risk for children’s psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry 144:736–741, 1987

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Zeanah CH: Discussion by Charles H. Zeahah, M.D.: Commentary on “Fit and starts: A mother-infant case-study involving intergenerational violent trauma and pseudoseizures across three generations”. Infant Mental Health Journal 24:526–528, 2003

    Google Scholar 

  68. Zahn-Waxler C, Kochanska G: The Origins of Guilt. In: Thompson RA (Ed) Socioemotional Development: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 36. Lincoln, NE, University of Nebraska Press, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  69. Zahn-Waxler C, Mayfield A, Radke-Yarrow M, et al.: A follow-up investigation of offspring of bipolar parents. American Journal of Psychiatry 145:506–509, 1988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Pepler DJ, Catallo R, Moore TE: Consider the children: Research informing interventions for children exposed to domestic violence. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma 3:37–57, 2000

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Schechter DS, Kaminer T, Grienenberger JF, et al.: Fits and starts: A mother-infant case-study involving intergenerational violent trauma and pseudoseizures across three generations. Infant Mental Health Journal 24:510–528, 2003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Fitzgerald HE, Puttler LI, Refior S, et al.: Family responses to children and alcohol. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly: Families and Alcoholism 25:11–25, 2007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Annunziato RA, Rakotomihamina V, Rubacka J: Examining the effects of maternal chronic illness on child well-being in single parent families. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics 28:386–391, 2007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Rosenheck R, Fontana A: Transgenerational effects of abusive violence on the children of Vietnam combat veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress 11:731–742, 1998

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Shonkoff JP, Phillips DA: From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. In: Committee on Integrating the Science of Early Childhood Development, Board on Children, Youth, and Families. Washington, DC, National Academy Press, 2000

  76. Cassidy J: Emotion regulation: Influences of attachment relationships. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 59:228–249, 1994

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Cassidy J, Berlin LJ: The insecure/ambivalent pattern of attachment: Theory and research. Child Development 65:971–991, 1994

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Nachmias M, Gunnar MR, Mangelsdorf S, et al.: Behavioral inhibition and stress reactivity: Moderating role of attachment security. Child Development 67:508–522, 1996

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Cole PM, Teti LO, Zahn-Waxler C: Mutual emotional regulation and the stability of conduct problems between preschool and early school age. Development and Psychopathology 15:1–18, 2003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Tronick EZ: Emotions and emotional communication in infants. American Psychologist 44:112–119, 1989

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Gottman JM: What Predicts Divorce? The Relationship Between Marital Process and Marital Outcomes. Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  82. Beeghly M, Cicchetti D: Child maltreatment, attachment, and the self-system: Emergence of an internal state lexicon in toddlers at high social risk. Development and Psychopathology 6:5–30, 1994

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Rogosch FA, Cicchetti D, Aber JL: The role of child maltreatment in early deviations in cognitive and affective processing abilities and later peer relationship problems. Development and Psychopathology 7:591–610, 1995

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Shields AM, Cicchetti D, Ryan RM: The development of emotional and behavioral self-regulation and social competence among maltreated school-age children. Development and Psychopathology 6:57–75, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  85. Shaw DS, Keenan K, Vondra JI: Developmental precursors of externalizing behavior: Ages 1 to 3. Developmental Psychology 30:355–364, 1994

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Shaw DS, Owens EB, Vondra JI, et al.: Early risk factors and pathways in the development of early disruptive behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology 8:679–699, 1996

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Dutton DG: Witnessing parental violence as a traumatic experience shaping the abusive personality. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 3:59–67, 2000

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Lawson DM: The development of abusive personality: A trauma response. Journal of Counseling and Development 79:505–509, 2001

    Google Scholar 

  89. Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Nordenberg D, et al.: Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 14:245–258, 1998

    Google Scholar 

  90. Rahman A, Iqbal Z, Bunn J, et al.: Impact of maternal depression on infant nutritional status and illness. Archives of General Psychiatry 61:946–952, 2004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Karlovits T, McColl MA: Coping with community reintegration after severe brain injury: A description of stresses and coping strategies. Brain Injury 13:485–861, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  92. Moore AD, Stambrook M, Peters L, et al.: Family coping and marital adjustment after traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 6(1):83–89, 1991

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Carter B, McGoldrick M: The Expanded Family Life Cycle: Individual, Family, & Social Perspectives, 3rd edn. New York, Allyn & Bacon, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  94. Walsh F: Traumatic loss and major disasters: Strengthening family and community resilience. Family Process 46:207–227, 2007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Figley CR: Burnout in Families: The Systemic Costs of Caring. New York, CRC Press, 1998

    Google Scholar 

  96. Cozza SJ, Chun RS, Polo JA: Military families and children during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Psychiatric Quarterly 76:371–378, 2005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Duvdevany I, Yahav R, Moin V: Children’s feelings toward parents in the context of parental disability. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research 28:259–262, 2005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Cook JM, Riggs DS, Thompson R, et al.: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and current relationship functioning among World War II ex-prisoners of war. Journal of Family Psychology 18:36–45, 2004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Whisman M: Marital dissatisfaction and psychiatric disorders: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 108:701–706, 1999

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Rauch PK, Muriel AC, Cassem NH: Parents with cancer: Who’s looking after the children? Journal of Clinical Oncology 21:117–121, 2003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Focht-Birkerts L, Beardslee WR: A child’s experience of parental depression: Encouraging relational resilience in families with affect illness. Family Process 39:417–434, 2000

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Beckham JC, Braxton LE, Kudler HS: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Profiles of Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder and their children. Journal of Clinical Psychology 53:847–852, 1997

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Beckham JC, Lytle BL, Feldman ME: Caregiver burden in partners of Vietnam War veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64:1068–1072, 1996

    Google Scholar 

  104. Dirkzwager AJE, Bramsen I, Ader H, et al.: Secondary traumatization in partners and parents of Dutch peacekeeping soldiers. Journal of Family Psychology 19:217–226, 2005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Ben Arzi N, Solomon Z, Dekel R: Secondary traumatization among wives of PTSD and post-concussion casualties: Distress, caregiver burden and psychological separation. Brain Injury 14:725–736, 2000

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Joiner TE, Coyne JC: The Interaction Nature of Depression: Advances in Interpersonal Approaches. Washington, DC, American Psychological Association, 1999

  107. Ahrons CR, Tanner JL: Adult children and their fathers: Relationship changes 20 years after parental divorce. Family Relations 52:340–351, 2003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Amato PR, Hohmann-Marriott B: A comparison of high- and low-distress marriages that end in divorce. Journal of Marriage and Family 69(3):621–638, 2007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Amato PR, Afifi TD: Feeling caught between parents: Adult children’s relations with parents and subjective well-being. Journal of Marriage and Family 68:222–235, 2006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Baum M: Postdivorce paternal disengagement: Failed mourning and role fusion. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 32:245–254, 2006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Holden GW, Geffner RA, Jouriles EN: Children Exposed to Marital Violence: Theory, Research, and Applied Issues. Washington, DC, American Psychological Association, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  112. Byrne CA, Riggs DS: Gender Issues in Couple and Family Therapy Following Traumatic Stress. In: Kimerling R, Ouimette P, Wolfe J (Eds) Gender and PTSD. New York, Guilford, 2002

    Google Scholar 

  113. Kosciulek JF: Relationship of family coping with head injury to family adaptation. Rehabilitation Psychology 39:215–230, 1994

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. Kosciulek JF, McCubbin MA, McCubbin HI: A theoretical framework for family adaptation to head injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 59:40–45, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  115. Stebbins P, Pakenham KI: Irrational schematic beliefs and psychological distress in caregivers of people with traumatic brain injury. Rehabilitation Psychology 46:178–194, 2001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  116. Sander AM, High WM, Jr., Hannay HJ, et al. 1997 Predictors of psychological health in caregivers of patients with closed head injury. Brain Injury 11:235–249

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Neimeyer RA: Meaning Reconstruction and the Experience of Loss. Washington, DC, American Psychological Association, 2001

    Book  Google Scholar 

  118. Calhoun LG, Tedeschi R: The Foundations of Posttraumatic Growth: An Expanded Framework. In: Calhoun L, Tedeschi R (Eds) Handbook of Posttraumatic Growth: Research and Practice. Mahwah, NJ, Erlbaum, 2006

    Google Scholar 

  119. Tedeschi RG, Calhoun LG: The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress 9:455–471, 1996

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Gimbel C, Booth A: Why does military combat experience adversely affect marital relations? Journal of Marriage and the Family 56(3):691–702, 1994

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Kulka RA, Schlenger WE, Fairbank JA, et al.: Trauma and the Vietnam War Generation: Report of Findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. New York, Bruner/Mazel, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  122. Riggs DS, Byrne CA, Weathers FW, et al.: The quality of the intimate relationships of male Vietnam veterans: Problems associated with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress 11(1):87–101, 1998

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Lapierre CB, Schwegler AF, LaBauve BJ: Posttraumatic stress and depression symptoms in soldiers returning from combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. Journal of Traumatic Stress 20:933–943, 2007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Kessler RC, Walters EE, Forthofer MS: The social consequences of psychiatric disorders, III: Probability of marital stability. American Journal of Psychiatry 155:1092–1096, 1998

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Orcutt HK, King LA, King DW: Male perpetrated violence among Vietnam veteran couples: Relationships with veteran’s early life characteristics, trauma history, and PTSD symptomatology. Journal of Traumatic Stress 16:381–390, 2003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Taft CT, Pless AP, Stalans LJ, et al.: Risk factors for partner violence among a national sample of combat veterans. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 73:151–159, 2005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Marsh NV, Martinovich WM: Executive dysfunction and domestic violence. Brain Injury 20:61–66, 2006

    Google Scholar 

  128. Calhoun PS, Beckham JC, Bosworth HB: Caregiver burden and psychological distress in partners of veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress 15:205–212, 2002

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Cicchetti D, Toth SL: Developmental Psychopathology and Disorders of Affect. In: Cicchetti D, Cohen DJ (Eds) Developmental Psychopathology. New York, Wiley, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  130. Osofsky JD: The effects of exposure to violence on young children. American Psychologist 50:782–788, 1995

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Pynoos RS, Steinberg AM, Wraith R: A Developmental Model of Childhood Traumatic Stress. In Cicchetti D, Cohen DJ (Eds) Developmental Psychopathology: Risk, Disorder, and Adaptation, Vol. 2. New York, Wiley, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  132. Scheeringa MS, Zeanah CH, Drell MJ, et al.: Two approaches to the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder in infancy and early childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34:191–200, 1995

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Hetherington EM: Coping with family transitions: Winners, losers, and survivors. Child Development 60:1–14, 1989

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Solomon J, George C: The development of attachment in separated and divorced families: Effect of overnight visitation, parent and couple variables. Attachment and Human Development 1:2–33, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  135. Heinicke CM, Guthrie D, Ruth G: Marital adaptation, divorce, and parent-infant development: A prospective study. Infant Mental Health Journal 18:282–299, 1997

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Hetherington EM, Kelly J: For Better or for Worse: Divorce Reconsidered. New York, Norton, 2003

    Google Scholar 

  137. Solomon J, George C: The caregiving system in mothers of infants: A comparison of divorcing and married mothers. Attachment & Human Development 1:171–190, 1999

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Strohschein L: Parental divorce and child mental health trajectories. Journal of Marriage and Family 67:1286–1300, 2005

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. Wallerstein J, Lewis J, Blakeslee S: The Unexpected Legacy of Divorce: A 25 Year Landmark Study. New York, Hyperion Books, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  140. Blankfeld DF, Holahan CJ: Social support, coping, and psychological adjustment among caregivers of head-injured patients. Psychology and Health 14:609–624, 1999

    Article  Google Scholar 

  141. Mulsow M, Caldera YM, Pursley M, et al.: Multilevel factors influencing maternal stress during the first three years. Journal of Marriage and Family 64:944–956, 2002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. McKelvey LM, Fitzgerald HE, Schiffman RF, et al.: Family stress and parent-infant interaction: The mediating role of coping. Infant Mental Health Journal 23:164–181, 2002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  143. Auerbach SM, Kiesler DJ, Wartella J, et al.: Optimism, satisfaction with needs met, interpersonal perceptions of the healthcare team, and emotional distress in patients’ family members during critical care hospitalization. American Journal of Critical Care 14:202–209, 2005

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Paparrigopoulus T, Melissaki A, Efthymiou A, et al.: Short-term psychological impact on family members of intensive care unit patients. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 61:719–722, 2006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Rutter M: Resilience Reconsidered: Conceptual Considerations, Empirical Findings, and Policy Implications. In: Shonkoff JP, Meisels SJ (Eds) Handbook of Early Childhood Intervention, 2nd edn., Vol. 651–682. New York, Cambridge University Press, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  146. Werner E: Protective Factors and Resilience. In: Shonkoff JP, Meisels SJ (Eds) Handbook of Early Childhood Intervention, 2nd edn. New York, Cambridge University Press, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  147. Kirkland FR: Postcombat Reentry. In: Jones FD, Sparacino LR, Wilcox VL, et al. (Eds) War Psychiatry. Washington, DC, Borden Institute, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  148. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration: Developing a Stigma Reduction Initiative. Rockville, MD, Center for Mental Health Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2006

  149. Webster G, Daisley A: Including children in family-focused acquired brain injury rehabilitation: A national survey of rehabilitation staff practice. Clinical Rehabilitation 21:1097–1108, 2007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Ponsford J, Olver J, Ponsford M, et al.: Long-term adjustment of families following traumatic brain injury where comprehensive rehabilitation has been provided. Brain Injury 17:453–468, 2003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Zero to Three National Center for Infants Toddlers and Families: Coming Together Around Military Projects: Building Healthy Minds. Washington, DC, Zero to Three, 2007

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University Outreach and Engagement, Michigan State University, 22 Kellogg Center, East Lansing, MI, 4882, USA

    Lisa A. Gorman & Hiram E. Fitzgerald

  2. Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA

    Hiram E. Fitzgerald

  3. Department of Family and Child Ecology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA

    Adrian J. Blow

Authors
  1. Lisa A. Gorman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hiram E. Fitzgerald
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Adrian J. Blow
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lisa A. Gorman.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gorman, L.A., Fitzgerald, H.E. & Blow, A.J. Parental Combat Injury and Early Child Development: A Conceptual Model for Differentiating Effects of Visible and Invisible Injuries. Psychiatr Q 81, 1–21 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-009-9116-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-009-9116-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation