Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Parenting Behavior and Conduct Problems in Children with and Without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Moderation by Callous-Unemotional Traits

  • Published:
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There is evidence that negative parenting positively predicts oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD) and that children’s callous-unemotional (CU) traits may moderate this association. However, it is largely unknown if CU traits show similar interactive effects with positive parenting for ODD/CD. 208 ethnically diverse (56% Caucasian) 6–9 year-old children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were ascertained using multiple methods and informants for ODD, CD, and CU traits. CU traits, corporal punishment, positive parenting, and each of their interactions with CU traits were unrelated to parent- and teacher-rated ODD. Corporal punishment and CU traits were similarly unrelated to parent- and teacher-rated CD. However, positive parenting inversely predicted parent-reported CD symptoms and it was significantly moderated by CU traits. Positive parenting was negatively associated with CD at low to moderate levels of CU traits, but it was unrelated to CD at high levels of CU traits. Children with elevated levels of CU traits exhibited significantly higher levels of CD symptoms that were largely independent of positive parenting behavior. We discuss these findings within a developmental psychopathology framework to provide further perspectives on reciprocal influences between parenting behavior and CU traits in the development of ODD and CD.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Barker, E. D., & Maughan, B. (2009). Differentiating early-onset persistent versus childhood-limited conduct problem youth. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 900–908.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, R. J. (2009). Too much of a good thing: increased grey matter in boys with conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits. Brain, 132, 831–832.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, R. J., Peschardt, K. S., Budhani, S., Mitchell, D. G., & Pine, D. S. (2006). The development of psychopathy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 262–275.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bor, W., Sanders, M. R., & Markie-Dadds, C. (2002). The effects of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program on preschool children with co-occurring disruptive behavior and attentional/hyperactive difficulties. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 571–587.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, J. D., Pardini, D. A., & Loeber, R. (2008). Reciprocal relationships between parenting behavior and disruptive psychopathology from childhood through adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 679–692.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, J. D., Waldman, I., & Lahey, B. B. (2010). Predictive validity of childhood oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: implications for the DSM-IV. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 739–751.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, S. B., Shaw, D. S., & Gilliom, M. (2000). Early externalizing behavior problems: toddlers and preschoolers at risk for later maladjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 467–488.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, L., Schwartz, D., Dodge, K. A., & McBride-Chang, C. (2003). Harsh parenting in relation to child emotion regulation and aggression. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 598–606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christian, R. E., Frick, P. J., Hill, N. L., Tyler, L., & Frazer, D. R. (1997). Psychopathy and conduct problems in children: II. Implications for subtyping children with conduct problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 233–241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chronis, A. M., Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Williams, S. H., Baumann, B. L., Kipp, H., et al. (2007). Maternal depression and early positive parenting predict future conduct problems in young children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Psychology, 43, 70–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corrado, R. R., Vincent, G. M., Hart, S. D., & Cohen, I. M. (2004). Predictive validity of the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version for general and violent recidivism. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 22, 5–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dadds, M. R., & Rhodes, T. (2008). Aggression in young children with concurrent callous–unemotional traits: can the neurosciences inform progress and innovation in treatment approaches? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Biological Sciences, 363, 2567–2576.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Los Reyes, A. (2011). Introduction to the special section: more than measurement error: discovering meaning behind informant discrepancies in clinical assessments of children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40(1), 1–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeKlyen, M., Speltz, M. L., & Greenberg, M. T. (1998). Fathering and early onset conduct problems: positive and negative parenting, father-son attachment, and the marital context. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1, 3–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeVore, E. R., & Ginsburg, K. R. (2005). The protective effects of good parenting on adolescents. Current Opinions in Pediatrics, 17, 460–465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edens, J. F., Skopp, N. A., & Cahill, M. A. (2008). Psychopathic features moderate the relationship between harsh and inconsistent parental discipline and adolescent antisocial behavior. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 472–476.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enebrink, P., Andershed, H., & Langstrom, N. (2005). Callous-unemotional traits are associated with clinical severity in referred boys with conduct problems. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 59, 431–440.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Essau, C. A., Sasagawa, S., & Frick, P. J. (2006). Psychometric properties of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15, 597–616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J. (1991). The Alabama Parenting Questionnaire. University of Alabama.

  • Frick, P. J., & Ellis, M. (1999). Callous-unemotional traits and subtypes of conduct disorder. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2, 149–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., & Hare, R. D. (2001). The antisocial process screening device (APSD). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., & White, S. F. (2008). Research review: the importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 359–375.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., Horn, Y. V., Lahey, B. B., Christ, M. A., Loeber, R., Hart, E., et al. (1993). Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: a meta-analytic review of factor analyses and cross-validation in a clinic sample. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 319–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., Christian, R. E., & Wootton, J. M. (1999). Age trends in the association between parenting practices and conduct problems. Behavior Modification, 23, 106–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., Bodin, S. D., & Barry, C. T. (2000). Psychopathic traits and conduct problems in community and clinic-referred samples of children: further development of the Psychopathy Screening Device. Psychological Assessment, 12, 382–393.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., Cornell, A. H., Bodin, S. D., Dane, H. E., Barry, C. T., & Loney, B. R. (2003). Callous-unemotional traits and developmental pathways to severe conduct problems. Developmental Psychology, 39, 246–260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., Stickle, T. R., Dandreaux, D. M., Farrell, J. M., & Kimonis, E. R. (2005). Callous-unemotional traits in predicting the severity and stability of conduct problems and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 471–487.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, F., Ward, S., Burton, J., & Wilson, C. (2003). The role of mother-child joint play in the early development of children’s conduct problems: a longitudinal observational study. Social Development, 12, 361–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, F., Burton, J., & Klimes, I. (2006). Randomised controlled trial of a parenting intervention in the voluntary sector for reducing child conduct problems: outcomes and mechanisms of change. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1123–1132.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, F., Hutchings, J., Bywater, T., & Whitaker, C. (2010). Who benefits and how does it work? Moderators and mediators of outcome in an effectiveness trial of a parenting intervention. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39, 568–580.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: a meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 539–579.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawes, D. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2005). The treatment of conduct problems in children with callous-unemotional traits. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 737–741.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawes, D. J., Dadds, M. R., Frost, A. D. J. & Hasking, P. A. (2011). Do childhood callousunemotional traits drive change in parenting practices? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40(4), 507–518.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawes, D. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2006). Assessing parenting practices through parent-report and direct observation during parent-training. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15, 555–568.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P., Lahey, B. B., & Hart, E. L. (1993). Issues of taxonomy and comorbidity in the development of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 31–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinshaw, S. P., Owens, E. B., Wells, K. C., Kraemer, H. C., Abikoff, H. B., Arnold, L. E., et al. (2000). Family processes and treatment outcome in the MTA: negative/ineffective parenting practices in relation to multimodal treatment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 555–568.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hipwell, A. E., Pardini, D. A., Loeber, R., Sembower, M., Keenan, K., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2007). Callous-unemotional behaviors in young girls: shared and unique effects relative to conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36(3), 293–304.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hipwell, A., Keenan, K., Kasza, K., Loever, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Bean, T. (2008). Reciprocal influences between girls’ conduct problems and depression, and parental punishment and warmth: a six year prospective analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(5), 663–667.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoeve, M., Dubas, J. S., Eichelsheim, V. I., Laan, P. H., Smeenk, W., & Gerris, J. R. (2009). The relationship between parenting and delinquency: a meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 749–775.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard, J. A., Dodge, K. A., Cillessen, A. H., Coie, J. D., & Schwartz, D. (2001). The dyadic nature of social information processing in boys’ reactive and proactive aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 268–280.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kluver, H., & Bucy, P. C. (1937). “Psychic blindness” and other symptoms following bilateral temporal lobectomy in rhesus monkeys. American Journal of Physiology, 119, 352–353.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knutson, J. F., DeGarmo, D. S., & Reid, J. B. (2004). Social disadvantage and neglectful parenting as precursors to the development of antisocial and aggressive child behavior: testing a theoretical model. Aggressive Behavior, 30, 187–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knutson, J. F., DeGarmo, D., Koeppl, G., & Reid, J. B. (2005). Care neglect, supervisory neglect and harsh parenting in the development of children’s aggression: a replication and extension. Child Maltreatment, 10, 92–107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LeDoux, J. (2003). The emotional brain, fear and the amygdala. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, 23, 727–738.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. S., Lahey, B. B., Owens, E. B., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2008). Few preschool boys and girls with ADHD are well-adjusted during adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 373–383.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., Burke, J. D., Lahey, B. B., Winters, A., & Zera, M. (2000). Oppositional defiant and conduct disorder: a review of the past 10 years, part I. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(12), 1468–1484.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., Burke, J. D., & Pardini, D. A. (2009). Development and etiology of disruptive and delinquent behavior. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 291–310.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maren, S., Yap, S. A., & Goosens, K. A. (2001). The amygdala is essential for the development of neuronal plasticity in the medial geniculate nucleus during auditory fear conditioning in rats. Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, A. A., Finger, E. C., Mitchell, D. G., Reid, M. E., Sims, C., Kosson, D. S., et al. (2008). Reduced amygdale response to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous-unemotional traits and disruptive behavior disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 712–720.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, K. M., Hough, R., Wood, P. A., & Yeh, M. (2000). Childhood and adolescent onset conduct disorder: a test of the developmental taxonomy. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 305–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, S., Loeber, R., & Hipwell, A. (2009). Peer deviance, parenting and disruptive behavior among young girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(2), 139–152.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescent-limited and life-course persistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moran, P., Rowe, R., Flach, C., Briskman, J., Ford, T., Maughan, B., et al. (2009). Predictive value of callous-unemotional traits in a large community sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 1079–1084.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murrie, D. C., Marcus, D. K., Douglas, K. S., Lee, Z., Salekin, R. T., & Vincent, G. (2007). Youth with psychopathy features are not a discrete class: a taxometric analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 714–723.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Odgers, C. L., Caspi, A., Broadbent, J. M., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., et al. (2007). Prediction of differential adult health burden by conduct problem subtypes in males. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 476–484.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Odgers, C. L., Moffitt, T. E., Broadbent, J. M., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., et al. (2008). Female and male antisocial trajectories: from childhood origins to adult outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 673–716.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oxford, M., Cavell, T. A., & Hughes, J. N. (2003). Callous/unemotional traits moderate the relation between ineffective parening and child externalizing problems: a partial replication and extension. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 577–585.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pajer, K. A. (1998). What happens to “bad” girls? A review of the adult outcomes of antisocial adolescent girls. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 862–870.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pardini, D. A., & Loeber, R. (2007). Interpersonal and affective features of psychopathy in children and adolescents: advancing a developmental perspective—introduction to special section. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 269–275.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., Gnagy, E. M., Greenslade, K. E., & Milich, R. (1992). Teacher ratings of DSM-III R symptoms for the disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 210–218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham, W. E., Fabiano, G. A., & Massetti, G. M. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 449–476.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petitclerc, A., Boivin, M., Dionne, G., Zoccolillo, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2009). Disregard for rules: the early development and predictors of a specific dimension of disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1477–1484.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (1997). Supportive parenting, ecological context, and children’s adjustment: a seven-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 68, 908–923.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phelps, E. A. (2006). Emotion and cognition: insights from studies of the human amygdala. Psychology, 57, 27–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piatigorsky, A., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2004). Psychopathic traits in boys with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: concurrent and longitudinal correlates. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 535–550.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, M. J., Webster-Stratton, C., & Baydar, N. (2004). Halting the development of conduct problems in head start children: the effects of parent training. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 279–291.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robison, S. D., Frick, P. J., & Sheffield Morris, A. (2005). Temperament and parenting: implications for understanding developmental pathways to conduct disorder. Minerva Pediatrica, 57, 373–388.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salekin, R. T. (2008). Psychopathy and recidivism from mid-adolescence to young adulthood: cumulating legal problems and limiting life opportunities. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 386–395.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seifer, R., Sameroff, A., Dicksten, S., Schiller, M., & Hayden, L. C. (2004). Your own children are special: clues to the sources of reporting bias in temperament assessments. Infant Behavior & Development, 27, 323–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH diagnostic interview schedule for children version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shelton, K. K., Frick, P. J., & Wootton, J. (1996). Assessment of parenting practices in families of elementary school-age children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25, 317–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverthorn, P., Frick, P. J., & Reynolds, R. (2004). Timing of onset and correlates of severe conduct problems in adjudicated girls and boys. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23, 171–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, R., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2007). Behavioral outcomes of parent–child interaction therapy and Triple P-Positive Parenting program: a review and meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 475–495.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Viding, E., Blair, R. J. R., Moffitt, T. E., & Plomin, R. (2005). Evidence for substantial genetic risk for psychopathy in 7-year-olds. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 592–597.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vitaro, F., Barker, E. D., Boivin, M., Brendgen, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2006). Do early difficult temperament and harsh parenting differentially predict reactive and proactive aggression? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 685–695.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wakschlag, L. S., Hill, C., Carter, A. S., Danis, B., Egger, H. L., Keenan, K., et al. (2008). Observational assessment of preschool disruptive behavior, part I: reliability of the Disruptive Behavior Diagnostic Observation Schedule (DB-DOS). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(6), 622–631.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2002). Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (2nd ed.). San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wootton, J. M., Frick, P. J., Shelton, K. K., & Silverthorn, P. (1997). Ineffective parenting and childhood conduct problems: the moderating role of callous-unemotional traits. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 301–308.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, Y., & Zhang, Z. (2008). Distinguishing proactive and reactive aggression in Chinese children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 539–552.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yuan, Y. C. (2002). Multiple imputation for missing data: Concepts and new development. SUGI27 Conference Proceedings.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 1285 Franz Hall, Box 951563, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1563, USA

    Avital E. Falk & Steve S. Lee

Authors
  1. Avital E. Falk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Steve S. Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Steve S. Lee.

Additional information

We thank the families for participation in the study and the research staff for their help with data collection and management. This work was supported by NIH grant 1R03AA020186-01 to Steve S. Lee.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Falk, A.E., Lee, S.S. Parenting Behavior and Conduct Problems in Children with and Without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Moderation by Callous-Unemotional Traits. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 34, 172–181 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-011-9268-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-011-9268-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation