Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Nature and Prevalence of Cyber Victimization Among Elementary School Children

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Child & Youth Care Forum Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Background

Despite growing concern about the impact of cyberbullying on youth, few studies to date have investigated this phenomenon among elementary school samples. Consequently, little is known about cyber victimization exposure among younger children.

Objective

The purpose of the present study was to examine the prevalence and nature of cyber victimization among a sample of elementary school students and determine whether significant differences existed between cyber victimized and non-cyber victimized students.

Methods

A total of 660 3rd–5th grade students in six schools completed an online survey on measures of traditional and cyber bullying and victimization. Descriptive statistics were used to determine prevalence, mechanism (e.g., social media), identity of the perpetrator, and whether incidents were reported to others. Fixed effects regression models, including dummy coded school variables to control for nesting, were run to assess group differences.

Results

Descriptive findings revealed that a substantial number of youth (17.7 %; n = 114) reported cyber victimization, predominantly through online games. Only 38 % (n = 43) of cyber victimized children knew the identity of the perpetrator and almost 50 % reported they did not tell anyone about the incident. Results also revealed that cyber victimized children reported significantly higher rates of traditional victimization and bullying involvement along with higher pro-bullying attitudes and lower pro-defending attitudes and self-efficacy for defending others.

Conclusions

The results of the present study suggest the need for developmentally appropriate prevention and intervention programs implemented at the elementary school level if efforts to address this complex problem are to be successful.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Agatston, P., Kowalski, R., & Limber, S. (2012). Youth views on cyberbullying. In J. W. Patchin & S. Hinduja (Eds.), Cyberbullying prevention and response: Expert perspectives (pp. 57–71). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ang, R. P., Tan, K. A., & Mansor, A. T. (2010). Normative beliefs about aggression as a mediator of narcissistic exploitativeness and cyberbullying. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 2619–2634. doi:10.1177/0886260510388286.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandyopadhyay, S., Cornell, D. G., & Konold, T. R. (2009). Validity of three school climate scales to assess bullying, aggressive attitudes, and help seeking. School Psychology Review, 38, 338–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartholow, B. D., Sestir, M. A., & Davis, E. B. (2005). Correlates and consequences of exposure to video game violence: Hostile personality, empathy, and aggressive behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1573–1586. doi:10.1177/0146167205277205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beran, T., & Li, Q. (2007). The relationship between cyberbullying and school bullying. Journal of Student Wellbeing, 1, 15–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berne, S., Frisén, A., Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Scheithauer, H., Naruskov, K., Luik, P., et al. (2013). Cyberbullying assessment instruments: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18, 320–334. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.11.022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berson, I. R., Berson, M. J., & Ferron, J. M. (2002). Emerging risks of violence in the digital age: Lessons for educators from an online study of adolescent girls in the United States. Journal of School Violence, 1, 51–72. doi:10.1300/J202v01n02_04.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biggs, B. K., Vernberg, E. M., Fonagy, P., Twemlow, S. W., Little, T. D., & Dill, E. J. (2010). Peer victimization trajectories and their association with children’s affect in late elementary school. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 34, 136–146. doi:10.1177/0165025409348560.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boulton, M., Lloyd, J., Down, J., & Marx, H. (2012). Predicting undergraduates’ self-reported engagement in traditional and cyberbullying from attitudes. Cyberpsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 15(3), 141–147. doi:10.1089/cyber.2011.0369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calvete, E., Izaskun, O., Estévez, A., Villardón, L., & Padilla, P. (2010). Cyberbullying in adolescents: Modalities and aggressors’ profile. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1128–1135. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, W., Brown, K., & Jackson, M. (2012). ‘Under the radar’: Educators and cyberbullying in schools. School Psychology International, 33, 520–532. doi:10.1177/0143034312445245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, W., Faucher, C., & Jackson, M. (2013). Cyberbullying among youth: A comprehensive review of current international research and its implications and application to policy and practice. School Psychology International, 34, 575–612. doi:10.1177/0143034313479697.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cornell, D. G., & Brockenbrough, K. (2004). Identification of bullies and victims: A comparison of methods. Journal of School Violence, 3(2–3), 63–87. doi:10.1300/J202v03n02_05.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cross, D., Shaw, T., Hearn, L., Epstein, M., Monks, H., Lester, L., et al. (2009). Australian covert bullying prevalence study (ACBPS). Retrieved from http://www.deewr.gov.au/Schooling/NationalSafeSchools/Pages/research.aspx

  • Dill, E. J., Vernberg, E. M., Fonagy, P., Twemlow, S. W., & Gamm, B. K. (2004). Negative affect in victimized children: The roles of social withdrawal, peer rejection, and attitudes towards bullying. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 159–173. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000019768.31348.81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elledge, L. C., Williford, A., DePaolis, K., Boulton, A., Little, T., & Salmivalli, C. (2013). Individual and contextual predictors of cyberbullying: The influence of children’s provictim attitudes and teachers’ ability to intervene. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 698–710. doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9920-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldbaum, S., Craig, W. M., Pepler, D., & Connolly, J. (2003). Developmental trajectories of victimization: Identifying risk and protective factors. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 19, 139–156. doi:10.1300/J008v19n02_09.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henry, D. B., Guerra, N., Huesmann, R., Tolan, P., VanAcker, R., & Eron, L. (2000). Normative influences on aggression in urban elementary school classrooms. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 59–81. doi:10.1023/A:1005142429725.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. (2008). Cyberbullying: An exploratory analysis of factors related to offending and victimization. Deviant Behavior, 29, 129–156. doi:10.1080/01639620701457816.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2009). Bullying beyond the schoolyard: Preventing and responding to cyberbullying. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2010a). Bullying, cyberbullying, and suicide. Archives of Suicide Research, 14, 206–221. doi:10.1080/13811118.201.494133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2010b). Cyberbullying: Identification, prevention, and response. Retrieved from http://www.cyberbullying.us

  • Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2012). Cyberbullying: Neither an epidemic nor a rarity. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 539–543. doi:10.1080/17405629.2012.706448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hodges, E. V. E., Malone, M. J., & Perry, D. G. (1997). Individual risk and social risk as interacting determinants of victimization in the peer group. Developmental Psychology, 33, 1032–1039. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.6.1032.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoff, D. L., & Mitchell, S. N. (2009). Cyberbullying: Causes, effects, and remedies. Journal of Educational Administration, 47, 653–665. doi:10.1108/09578230910981107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jolliffe, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2004). Empathy and offending: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9, 441–476. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2003.03.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juvonen, J., & Gross, E. F. (2008). Bullying experiences in cyberspace. The Journal of School Health, 78, 496–505. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2008.00335.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katzer, C., Fetchenhauer, D., & Belschak, F. (2009). Cyberbullying: Who are the victims? A comparison of victimization in Internet chatrooms and victimization in school. Journal of Media Psychology, 21, 25–36. doi:10.1027/1864-1105.21.1.25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiriakidis, S. P., & Kavoura, A. (2010). Cyberbullying: A review of the literature on harassment through the Internet and other electronic means. Community Health, 33, 82–93. doi:10.1097/FCH.0b013e3181d593e4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2007). Electronic bullying among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S22–S30. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.017.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kowalski, R. M., Limber, S. P., & Agatston, P. W. (2012). Cyberbullying: Bullying in the digital age (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladd, G. W., & Kochenderfer-Ladd, B. (2002). Identifying victims of peer aggression from early to middle childhood: Analysis of cross-informant data for concordance, estimation of relational adjustment, prevalence of victimization, and characteristics of identified victims. Psychological Assessment, 14, 74–96. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.14.1.74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, Q. (2006). Cyberbullying in schools: A research of gender differences. School Psychology International, 27, 157–170. doi:10.1177/0143034306064547.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovett, B. J., & Sheffield, R. A. (2007). Affective empathy deficits in aggressive children and adolescents: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.03.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Obama, B. (2011). President Obama & the First Lady at the White House Conference on Bullying Prevention. [Video file]. 11 March 2011. Retrieved from: http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2011/03/10/president-obama-first-lady-white-house-conference-bullying-prevention

  • Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. New York: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (2012). Cyberbullying: An overrated phenomenon? European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 520–538. doi:10.1080/17405629.2012.682358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2006). Bullies move beyond the schoolyard: A preliminary look at cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4, 148–169. doi:10.1177/1541204006286288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2010). Cyber bullying and self-esteem. Journal of School Health, 80, 614–621. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2010.00549.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pöyhönen, V., Juvonen, J., & Salmivalli, C. (2010). What does it take to stand up for the victim of bullying? The interplay between personal and social factors. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 56, 143–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pöyhönen, V., Kärnä, A., & Salmivalli, C. (2008). Classroom-level moderators of the empathy-defending link. In R. Veenstra (Chair), Bullying and victimization, Symposium conducted at the 20th Biennial Meeting of the International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development, Würzburg, Germany.

  • Raskauskas, J., & Stoltz, A. D. (2007). Involvement in traditional and electronic bullying among adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 43, 564–575. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.3.564.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rigby, K., & Slee, P. (1991). Bullying among Australian school children: Reported behavior and attitudes toward victims. Journal of Social Psychology, 131, 615–627. doi:10.1080/00224545.1991.9924646.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salmivalli, C., & Voeten, M. (2004). Connections between attitudes, group norms, and behaviour in bullying situations. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 246–258. doi:10.1080/01650250344000488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultze-Krumbholz, A., & Scheithauer, H. (2009). Social-behavioral correlates of cyberbullying in a German student sample. Journal of Psychology, 217, 224–226. doi:10.1027/0044-3409.217.4.224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slonje, R., Smith, P. K., & Frisén, A. (2013). The nature of cyberbullying, and strategies for prevention. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 26–32. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.05.024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. K. (2012). Cyberbullying and cyber aggression. In S. R. Jimerson, A. B. Nickerson, M. J. Mayer, & M. J. Furlong (Eds.), Handbook of school violence and school safety (pp. 93–103). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008). Cyberbullying: its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 376–385. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. K., & Slonje, R. (2010). Cyberbullying: The nature and extent of a new kind of bullying, in and out of school. In S. R. Jimerson, S. M. Swearer, & D. L. Espelage (Eds.), Handbook of bullying in schools: An international perspective (pp. 249–262). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snakenborg, J., VanAcker, R., & Gable, R. (2011). Cyberbullying: Prevention and intervention to protect our children and youth. Preventing School Failure, 55, 88–95. doi:10.1080/1045988x.2011.539454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sourander, A., Klomek, A. B., Ikonen, M., Lindroos, J., Luntamo, T., Koskelainen, M., et al. (2010). Psychosocial risk factors associated with cyberbullying among adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 720–728. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steffgen, G., König, A., Pfetsch, J., & Melzer, A. (2011). Are cyberbullies less empathic? Adolescents’ cyberbullying behavior and empathic responsiveness. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14, 643–648. doi:10.1089/cyber.2010.0445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tippett, N., & Kwak, K. (2012). Cyberbullying in South Korea. In Q. Li, D. Cross, & P. K. Smith (Eds.), Cyberbullying in the global playground: Research from international perspectives (pp. 202–219). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tokunaga, R. S. (2010). Following you home from school: A critical review a synthesis of research on cyberbullying victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 277–287. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.11.014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Goethem, A. A. J., Scholte, R. H., & Wiers, R. W. (2010). Explicit- and implicit bullying attitudes in relation to bullying behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 829–842. doi:10.1007/s10802-010-9405-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vandebosch, H., & Van Cleemput, K. (2009). Cyberbullying among youngsters: Profiles of bullies and victims. New Media & Society, 11, 1349–1371. doi:10.1177/1461444809341263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., Oldehinkel, A. J., De Winter, A. F., Verhulst, F. C., & Ormel, J. (2005). Bullying and victimization in elementary schools: A comparison of bullies, victims, bully/victims, and uninvolved preadolescents. Developmental Psychology, 41, 672–682. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.672.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vernberg, E. M., Nelson, T. D., Fonagy, P., & Twemlow, S. W. (2011). Victimization, aggression, and visits to the school nurse for somatic complaints, illness, and physical injury. Pediatrics, 127, 842–848. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-3415.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von Marées, N., & Petermann, F. (2012). Cyberbullying: An increasing challenge for schools. School Psychology International, 33, 467–476. doi:10.1177/0143034312445241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wade, A., & Beran, T. (2011). Cyberbullying: The new era of bullying. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 26, 44–61. doi:10.1177/0829573510396318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, N. E., Bumpus, M. F., & Rock, D. (2010). Involvement in Internet aggression during early adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 607–619. doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9419-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willard, N. E. (2007). Cyberbullying and cyberthreats: Responding to the challenge of online social aggression, threats, and distress. Champaign, IL: Research Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. R., & Guerra, N. G. (2007). Prevalence and predictors of Internet bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S14–S21. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.018.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolak, J., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). Does online harassment constitute bullying? An exploration of online harassment by known peers and online-only contacts. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S51–S58. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ybarra, M. L., Diener-West, M., & Leaf, P. J. (2007). Examining the overlap in Internet harassment and school bullying: Implications for school intervention. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S42–S50. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2004). Online aggressor/targets, aggressors, and targets: A comparison of associated youth characteristics. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 4, 1308–1316. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.03.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2007). Prevalence and frequency of Internet harassment instigation: Implications for adolescent health. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 189–195. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.03.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ybarra, M. L., Mitchell, K. J., Wolak, J., & Finkelhor, F. (2006). Examining characteristics and associated distress related to Internet harassment: Findings from the second youth Internet safety survey. Pediatrics, 118, 1169–1177. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-0815.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Social Welfare, University of Kansas, 1545 Lilac Lane, Lawrence, KS, 66045-3129, USA

    Kathryn DePaolis & Anne Williford

Authors
  1. Kathryn DePaolis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anne Williford
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kathryn DePaolis.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

DePaolis, K., Williford, A. The Nature and Prevalence of Cyber Victimization Among Elementary School Children. Child Youth Care Forum 44, 377–393 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-014-9292-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-014-9292-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation