The identity statuses identified in Marcia’s original conceptualization were intended to capture the past process of identity formation, as well as present identity commitments. In other words, the identity statuses cover both the over-time process of identity formation and its outcome. This means that identity statuses preferably should be modeled as over-time processes, or identity status trajectories. Therefore, the first hypothesis of the present study was that Marcia’s original statuses (Marcia
1966) would emerge as identity status trajectories, and that a distinction could be made between two types of moratorium-like identity status trajectories. Our findings confirm that achievement, moratorium, early closure, and diffusion are indeed identity status trajectories, and can be considered stable, over-time solutions of the identity puzzle. We also found two kinds of moratorium, “classical” moratorium and searching moratorium. We also found support for three additional hypotheses, in that the prevalence of achievement was higher, and prevalence of diffusion was lower, in middle-to-late than in early-to-middle adolescence, that females were more often in the high commitment status trajectories (achievement and early closure) than males, and that the identity status trajectories of achievement and early closure showed higher levels of adjustment then moratorium and diffusion. Additionally, searching moratoriums showed lower over-time levels of depressive symptoms than moratoriums.
Five Identity Status Trajectories
We conceptualized an identity status trajectory as an over-time combination of scores on three identity dimensions, namely commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment. Using these three dimensions without any preset classification criteria, we obtained five empirically derived identity status trajectories. Further, as shown in Table
1, the differences in intercepts of identity dimensions between the identity status trajectories were substantial. The range of differences in dimensional intercepts, on a five-point scale, was 1.31 for commitment, 1.67 for in-depth exploration, and 2.36 for reconsideration, respectively.
Of the respondents of our sample, 15.8% was classified within the identity status trajectory of achievement. Achievers maintain secure, active, and strong commitments. They have well-defined commitments, are active in processing them, and do not feel the need to consider alternative commitments. Achievers, together with the early closures, had the lowest scores in depressive symptoms and delinquency. Thus, as expected, these identity status trajectories represented the adolescents with the highest levels of psychosocial adjustment.
The early closure trajectory represented 39.6% of our respondents. Early closures have commitments of intermediate strength, do not think a lot about them, and are absolutely not active in looking for alternative ones. They seem to maintain their commitments in an automatic fashion. As expected, early closures were, together with achievers, the adolescents with the most optimal levels of psychosocial adjustment. In the GLM analyses, they were found to have the lowest levels of depressive symptoms and delinquency.
Fewer respondents (4.8%) were classified in searching moratorium. With the exception of a single case, these respondents were early-to-middle adolescents. Searching moratoriums moved from very strong, actively processed, and totally non-fixed commitments in Wave 1 to strong, active, and unsteady commitments in Wave 5. In Wave 5, their profile came closest to that of achievers, especially with regard to the dimensions of commitment and exploration in depth. On the other hand, searching moratoriums were found to differ substantially from moratoriums. We will discuss this difference below.
The moratorium trajectory was comprised of 20.5% of our respondents. These adolescents have the classical profile of low-adjustment individuals struggling with identity issues. They have weak commitments, and do not process them very actively. Although gaining in security of commitments, they maintain a relatively high level of considering alternative ones. As expected, they had the most negative profile of psychosocial adjustment; together with diffusions, they showed the highest level of depressive symptoms and delinquency in the total sample GLM analyses. Only with regard to the reconsideration of commitment did moratoriums resemble searching moratoriums, in that both groups showed relatively high levels. With regard to both commitment and in-depth exploration as well as psychosocial adjustment, moratoriums and searching moratoriums look very different. Whereas moratoriums lack strong commitments and do not process them very actively, searching moratoriums are active in processing strong commitments. Whereas moratoriums show a high level of depressive symptoms, searching moratoriums show a low level. Thus, whereas moratoriums are not successful in finding strong commitments, searching moratoriums look for alternative commitments from the firm base of strong commitments.
The diffusion trajectory represented 20.7% of our respondents. These adolescents have weak commitments, do not explore them, and also do not consider alternatives. They do not seem to accept the identity challenge. Staying uncommitted, however, has its price. As predicted, diffusions showed low levels of psychosocial adjustment. In the total sample GLM analyses, they had—together with the moratoriums—the highest levels of depressive symptoms and delinquency.
In sum, our findings underline the fruitfulness of Marcia’s (
1966) original distinction between achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion. These ways to handle the identity issue are indeed identity status trajectories that are distinct and relatively stable, over-time solutions of the identity puzzle. Our findings also make clear that it is useful to distinguish moratorium from searching moratorium, with the first trajectory indicating the inability to find a fitting identity, and the latter a purposeful and potentially productive exploration of alternative commitments.
The Two Faces of Moratorium
The identity status literature offers an optimistic and a pessimistic description of the identity status of moratorium. The optimistic description combines a positive profile of the identity status with a positive evaluation of the many opportunities offered by the extension of adolescence in western societies. Prior research has found moratoriums to be open to new experience (Luyckx et al.
2005), to be cognitively complex (Marcia
1993b), to adopt an informational processing orientation, and to analytically seek out and evaluate self-relevant information (Berzonsky
1989). These capacities make them very capable of navigating through extended adolescence, exploring various life alternatives (Arnett
2000; Côté and Schwartz
2002), and building well-informed commitments. In short, moratoriums are indecisive about future commitments by choice (Fuqua and Hartmann 1983 as cited in Luyckx et al.
2008), but possess excellent capacities to decide about them in due time. The pessimistic description combines a negative profile of the identity status with a negative evaluation of the seemingly limitless and chaotic opportunities offered by extended adolescence (Schwartz et al.
2005). Earlier studies report moratoriums to be high in self-rumination (Luyckx et al.
2008), depressed (Meeus
1996), anxious (Crocetti et al.
2008), and high in substance use (Luyckx et al.
2005). Moratoriums are not characterized by temporary indecision in this perspective, but rather by relatively high levels of indecisiveness and the inability to find firm commitments. From this pessimistic view, such difficulties certainly do not qualify them to cope with the challenges and uncertainties of extended adolescence.
This study supports the distinction between optimistic and pessimistic accounts of “moratorium-like” identity. The identity status trajectory we have labeled moratorium represents the pessimistic view. Moratoriums in the present study are characterized by indecisiveness, showing weak commitments, relatively high levels of reconsideration, and low levels of psychosocial adjustment over the 4 years of the study. In contradistinction to moratoriums, searching moratoriums seem to represent an optimistic view of moratorium. These individuals are not characterized by indecisiveness, since they have strong commitments. Rather, they are typified by indecision because they are active in considering alternatives for their present strong commitments. Therefore, searching moratoriums truly seem to be on the way to making final choices from a set of alternative, well-defined commitments. Our observation that searching moratoriums are no longer present in middle-to-late adolescence suggests that they finish the process of finding stable commitments in early-to-middle adolescence. This suggests that combining strong commitments with high levels of searching for alternatives comes to an end in early-to-middle adolescence.
Developmental Issues
Our findings support Waterman’s (
1982) developmental hypothesis of the identity status model. In the middle-to-late adolescent group, the number of achievers and early closures was higher than in the early-to-middle adolescent group, whereas the numbers of searching moratoriums, moratoriums, and diffusions were lower. Thus, we generally found identity progression. This result is consistent with earlier findings by Berzonsky and Adams (
1999), Kroger et al. (
2010), and Van Hoof (
1999), all of whom found more progression than regression.
It is important to note that our test of Waterman’s hypothesis was rather limited, in that we only tested for age differences in identity status trajectories between early-to-middle and middle-to-late adolescents. Waterman’s hypothesis also suggests intra-individual development, however, namely that individuals progress from less adaptive to more adaptive identity status trajectories as they grow older. A test of this hypothesis would require that we follow participants across a period of, for instance, 15 years. This strategy would allow us to model three consecutive, 5-year identity status trajectories and observe how individuals switch between them during two transitions, namely from early-to-middle adolescence to middle-to-late adolescence, and from late to post-adolescence, respectively.