Top

Optie A:

Klik op de rechtermuisknop op de link en selecteer de optie “linkadres kopiëren”
Optie B:

Deel de link per e-mail
Link delen

vorige artikel Chronic and Acute Relational Risk Factors for D...

volgende artikel The Promotive and Protective Effects of Family ...

Tip

Swipe om te navigeren naar een ander artikel

22-02-2016 | Empirical Research | Uitgave 4/2016

From Violence in the Home to Physical Dating Violence Victimization: The Mediating Role of Psychological Distress in a Prospective Study of Female Adolescents

Tijdschrift:: Journal of Youth and Adolescence > Uitgave 4/2016

Auteur:: Michele Cascardi

» Toegang tot de volledige tekst krijgen

Abstract

Symptoms of psychological distress may be one pathway through which child maltreatment and witnessing violence in the home relate to dating violence victimization. This study examined whether psychological distress in mid-adolescence mediated the link between child maltreatment and witnessing violence in early adolescence and dating violence victimization in young adulthood. The sample included female participants (N = 532) from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well Being who were 18 years or older in the fifth and final wave of data collection. At the time of entry into the study, participants were 12.81 (SD = 1.23) years old. Sixteen percent of participants identified as Hispanic; 53 % identified their race as White, 33 % as Black, and 11 % as American Indian. Results showed that psychological distress may play a causal role in the relationship of violence in the home to dating violence victimization. Interventions targeting psychological distress, particularly in samples at risk for child maltreatment, may reduce the risk of dating violence victimization.

Log in om toegang te krijgen

Hier inloggen

Met onderstaand(e) abonnement(en) heeft u direct toegang:

BSL Psychologie Totaal

Met BSL Psychologie Totaal blijft u als professional steeds op de hoogte van de nieuwste ontwikkelingen binnen uw vak. Met het online abonnement heeft u toegang tot een groot aantal boeken, protocollen, vaktijdschriften en e-learnings op het gebied van psychologie en psychiatrie. Zo kunt u op uw gemak en wanneer het u het beste uitkomt verdiepen in uw vakgebied.

Meer informatie

Achenbach, T. (1991). Manual for the child behavior checklist/4-18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.

Arbuckle, J. (2008). Amos 17.0. 2 [software and manual]. Crawfordville, FL: Amos Development Corporation.

Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238–246. CrossRefPubMed

Bentler, P. M., & Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3), 588–606. CrossRef

Black, M. C., Basile, K. C., Breiding, M. J., Smith, S. G., Walters, M. L., Merrick, M. T., & Stevens, M. R. (2011). National intimate partner and sexual violence survey. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Bollen, K. A. (1989). A new incremental fit index for general structural equation models. Sociological Methods and Research, 17(3), 303–316. CrossRef

Breitenbecher, K. H. (2001). Sexual revictimization among women: A review of the literature focusing on empirical investigations. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 6, 415–432. CrossRef

Briere, J. (1996). Trauma symptom checklist for children: Professional manual. Odessa, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources Inc.

Brooks-Russell, A., Foshee, V. A., & Ennett, S. T. (2013). Predictors of latent trajectory classes of physical dating violence victimization. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(4), 566–580. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Browne, M. W., Cudeck, R., Bollen, K. A., & Long, J. S. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sage Focus Editions, 154, 136.

Capaldi, D. M., & Clark, S. (1998). Prospective family predictors of aggression toward female partners for at-risk young men. Developmental Psychology, 34(6), 1175–1188. CrossRefPubMed

Carroll, B. C., Raj, A., Noel, S. E., & Bauchner, H. (2011). Dating violence among adolescents presenting to a pediatric emergency department. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 165, 1101–1106. CrossRef

Cascardi, M., & Avery-Leaf, S. (2015). Gender differences in dating aggression and victimization among low income urban middle school students. Partner Abuse, 6(4), 1–21. CrossRef

Chu, J. A. (1992). The revictimization of adult women with histories of childhood abuse. The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research, 1(3), 259–269. PubMedPubMedCentral

Cleveland, H. H., Herrera, V. M., & Stuewig, J. (2003). Abusive males and abused females in adolescent relationships: Risk factor similarity and dissimilarity and the role of relationship seriousness. Journal of Family Violence, 18(6), 325–339. CrossRef

Cloitre, M., Stolbach, B. C., Herman, J. L., Kolk, B. V. D., Pynoos, R., Wang, J., & Petkova, E. (2009). A developmental approach to complex PTSD: Childhood and adult cumulative trauma as predictors of symptom complexity. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(5), 399–408. CrossRefPubMed

Coates, A. A., & Messman-Moore, T. (2014). A structural model of mechanisms predicting depressive symptoms in women following childhood psychological abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 38, 103–113. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.005. CrossRefPubMed

Conger, R. D., Cui, M., Bryant, C. M., & Elder, G. H, Jr. (2000). Competence in early adult romantic relationships: A developmental perspective on family influences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(2), 224–237. CrossRefPubMed

Connolly, J., Nguyen, H. N. T., Pepler, D., Craig, W., & Jiang, D. (2013). Developmental trajectories of romantic stages and associations with problem behaviours during adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 1013–1024. CrossRefPubMed

Cui, M., Durtschi, J. A., Donnellan, M. B., Lorenz, F. O., & Conger, R. D. (2010). Intergenerational transmission of relationship aggression: A prospective longitudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(6), 688–697. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, J. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1(1), 16–29. CrossRef

Dowd, K., Kinsey, S., Wheeless, S., Thissen, R., Richardson, J., Suresh, R., & Smith, K. (2008). National survey on child and adolescent wellbeing: Combined waves 1–5 data file user’s manual restricted release version. NY: Administration on Children and Families, distributed by National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect.

Ehrensaft, M. K., Cohen, P., Brown, J., Smailes, E., Chen, H., & Johnson, J. G. (2003). Intergenerational transmission of partner violence: A 20-year prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(4), 741–753. CrossRefPubMed

Ellis, W. E., Chung-Hall, J., & Dumas, T. M. (2013). The role of peer group aggression in predicting adolescent dating violence and relationship quality. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 487–499. CrossRefPubMed

Exner-Cortens, D., Eckenrode, J., & Rothman, E. (2013). Longitudinal associations between teen dating violence victimization and adverse health outcomes. Pediatrics, 131(1), 71–78. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Faulkner, B., Goldstein, A. L., & Wekerle, C. (2014). Pathways from childhood abuse to emerging adulthood: Investigating trauma-mediated substance use and dating violence outcomes among child protective Services-Involved youth. Child Maltreatment, 19(3), 219–232. CrossRefPubMed

Finkelhor, D., & Asdigian, N. L. (1996). Risk factors for youth victimization: Beyond a lifestyles/routine activities theory approach. Violence and Victims, 11(1), 3–19. PubMed

Fiorillo, D., Papa, A., & Follette, V. M. (2013). The relationship between child physical abuse and victimization in dating relationships: The role of experiential avoidance. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5(6), 562–569. CrossRef

Flynn, M., Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. (2014). The prospective contribution of childhood abuse to low self-worth, low relationship quality, and symptomatology across adolescence: A developmental-organizational perspective. Developmental Psychology, 50(9), 2165–2175. doi: 10.1037/a0037162. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Foshee, V. A., Benefield, T. S., Ennett, S. T., Bauman, K. E., & Suchindran, C. (2004). Longitudinal predictors of serious physical and sexual dating violence victimization during adolescence. Preventive Medicine, 39(5), 1007–1016. CrossRefPubMed

Fox, N. A. (1995). The witnessing violence scale for children-VEX. College Park, MD: Department of Human Development, University of Maryland.

Furman, W., Ho, M. J., & Low, S. M. (2007). The rocky road of adolescent romantic experience: Dating and adjustment. In C. M. E. Engels, M. Kerr, & H. Stattin (Eds.), Friends, lovers and groups: Key relationships in adolescence (pp. 61–80). NJ: Wiley.

Gómez, A. M. (2011). Testing the cycle of violence hypothesis: Child abuse and adolescent dating violence as predictors of intimate partner violence in young adulthood. Youth and Society, 43, 171–192. CrossRef

Haller, M., & Chassin, L. (2012). A test of adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms as prospective predictors of type of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25(6), 691–699. doi: 10.1002/jts.21751. CrossRefPubMed

Hamby, S., Finkelhor, D., & Turner, H. (2012). Teen dating violence: Co-occurrence with other victimizations in the National survey of children’s witnessing violence (NatSCEV). Psychology of Violence, 2(2), 111–124. CrossRef

Hamby, S., & Turner, H. (2013). Measuring teen dating violence in males and females: Insights from the national survey of children’s witnessing violence. Psychology of Violence, 3(4), 323–339. CrossRef

Hammen, C. (2009). Adolescent depression: Stressful interpersonal contexts and risk for recurrence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(4), 200–204. doi: 10.1111/j.14678721.2009.01636.x. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Haynie, D. L., Farhat, T., Brooks-Russell, A., Wang, J., Barbieri, B., & Iannotti, R. J. (2013). Dating violence perpetration and victimization among US adolescents: Prevalence, patterns, and associations with health complaints and substance use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(2), 194–201. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Hickman, L. J., Jaycox, L. H., & Aronoff, J. (2004). Dating violence among adolescents: Prevalence, gender distribution, and prevention program effectiveness. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 5(2), 123–142. CrossRefPubMed

Hodges, M., Godbout, N., Briere, J., Lanktree, C., Gilbert, A., & Kletzka, N. T. (2013). Cumulative trauma and symptom complexity in children: A path analysis. Child Abuse and Neglect, 11, 891. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.04.001. CrossRef

Hoyle, R., & Panter, A. T. (1995). Writing about structural equation models. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 158–176). CA: Sage Publications.

Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. CrossRef

Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011). Cognitive–behavioral therapy for PTSD and depression symptoms reduces risk for future intimate partner violence among interpersonal trauma survivors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(2), 193–202. doi: 10.1037/a0022512. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Iverson, K. M., Litwack, S. D., Pineles, S. L., Suvak, M. K., Vaughn, R. A., & Resick, P. A. (2013). Predictors of intimate partner violence revictimization: The relative impact of distinct PTSD symptoms, dissociation, and coping strategies. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(1), 102–110. doi: 10.1002/jts.21781. CrossRefPubMed

Jackson, S. M., Cram, F., & Seymour, F. W. (2000). Violence and sexual coercion in high school students’ relationships. Journal of Family Violence, 15, 498–513. CrossRef

Johnson, W. L., Giordano, P. C., Manning, W. D., & Longmore, M. A. (2015). The age-IPV curve: Changes in intimate partner violence perpetration during adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44, 708–726. doi: 10.1007/s10964-014-0158-z. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Keenan-Miller, D., Hammen, C., & Brennan, P. (2007). Adolescent psychosocial risk factors for severe intimate partner violence in young adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(3), 456–463. CrossRefPubMed

Kim, H. K., & Capaldi, D. M. (2004). The association of antisocial behavior and depressive symptoms between partners and risk for aggression in romantic relationships. Journal of Family Psychology, 18(1), 82–96. doi: 10.1037/0893-3200.18.1.82. CrossRefPubMed

Kovacs, M. (1992). The children’s depression inventory manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems Inc.

Krause, E. D., Kaltman, S., Goodman, L., & Dutton, M. A. (2006). Role of distinct PTSD symptoms in intimate partner reabuse: A prospective study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(4), 507–516. CrossRefPubMed

Kuijpers, K. F., van, d. K., & Winkel, F. W. (2012). PTSD symptoms as risk factors for intimate partner violence revictimization and the mediating role of victims’ violent behavior. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25(2), 179–186. doi: 10.1002/jts.21676.

Little, R. J. A. (1998). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83, 1198–1202. CrossRef

Lohman, B. J., Neppl, T. K., Senia, J. M., & Schofield, T. J. (2013). Understanding adolescent and family influences on intimate partner psychological violence during emerging adulthood and adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(4), 500–517. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Longmore, M. A., Manning, W. D., Giordano, P. C., & Copp, J. E. (2014). Intimate partner victimization, poor relationship quality, and depressive symptoms during young adulthood. Social Science Research, 48, 77–89. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.05.006. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Lumley, M. N., & Harkness, K. L. (2009). Childhood abuse and depressotypic cognitive organization. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33(5), 511–522. doi: 10.1007/s10608-009-9257-7. CrossRef

Morris, A. M., Mrug, S., & Windle, M. (2015). From family violence to dating violence: Testing a dual pathway model. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(9), 1819–1835. CrossRefPubMed

Moylan, C. A., Herrenkohl, T. I., Sousa, C., Tajima, E. A., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Russo, M. J. (2010). The effects of child abuse and exposure to domestic violence on adolescent internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Journal of Family Violence, 25(1), 53–63. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Nanni, V., Uher, R., & Danese, A. (2012). Childhood abuse predicts unfavorable course of illness and treatment outcome in depression: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 141–151. CrossRefPubMed

Narayan, A. J., Englund, M. M., Carlson, E. A., & Egeland, B. (2014). Adolescent conflict as a developmental process in the prospective pathway from exposure to interparental violence to dating violence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(2), 239–250. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Niolon, P. H., Vivolo-Kantor, A. M., Latzman, N. E., Valle, L. A., Kuoh, H., Burton, T., & Tharp, A. T. (2015). Prevalence of teen dating violence and co-occurring risk factors among middle school youth in high-risk urban communities. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56(2), S5–S13. CrossRefPubMed

Norman, R. E., Byambaa, M., De, R., Butchart, A., Scott, J., & Vos, T. (2012). The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, psychological abuse, and neglect: A systematic review and metaanalysis. PLoS Medicine, 9(11), e1001349. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

O’Leary, K. D., Slep, A. S., Avery-Leaf, S., & Cascardi, M. (2008). Gender differences in dating aggression among multiethnic high school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42, 473–479. CrossRefPubMed

Offenhauer, P. & Buchalter, A. (2011). Teen dating violence: A literature review and annotated bibliography. A report prepared by the Federal Research Division, Library of Congress under an interagency agreement with the Violence and Victimization Research Division, National Institute of Justice. Retrieved from: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/235368.pdf.

Orpinas, P., Hsieh, H., Song, X., Holland, K., & Nahapetyan, L. (2013). Trajectories of physical dating violence from middle to high school: Association with relationship quality and acceptability of aggression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 4, 551–565. CrossRef

Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2008). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, And Policy, 1, 3–36. doi: 10.1037/1942-9681.S.1.3. CrossRef

Rao, U., Hammen, C., & Daley, S. E. (1999). Continuity of depression during the transition to adulthood: A 5-year longitudinal study of young women. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 908–915. doi: 10.1097/00004583-199907000-00022. CrossRefPubMed

Rauer, A. J., Pettit, G. S., Lansford, J. E., Bates, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (2013). Romantic relationship patterns in young adulthood and their developmental antecedents. Developmental Psychology, 49(11), 2159–2171. CrossRefPubMed

Raviv, A., Raviv, A., Shimoni, H., Fox, N. A., & Leavitt, L. A. (1999). Children’s self-report of witnessing violence and its relation to psychological distress. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 20, 337–353. doi: 10.1016/S0193-3973(99)00020-9. CrossRef

Reyes, H., Foshee, V. A., Fortson, B. L., Valle, L. A., Breiding, M. J., & Merrick, M. T. (2015). Longitudinal mediators of relations between family violence and adolescent dating aggression perpetration. Journal of Marriage and Family, 77(4), 1016–1030. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Risser, H. J., Hetzel-Riggin, M., Thomsen, C. J., & McCanne, T. R. (2006). PTSD as a mediator of sexual revictimization: The role of reexperiencing, avoidance, and arousal symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(5), 687–698. doi: 10.1002/jts.20156. CrossRefPubMed

Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7(2), 147–177. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.7.2.147. CrossRefPubMed

Shenk, C. E., Putnam, F. W., Rausch, J. R., Peugh, J. L., & Noll, J. G. (2014). A longitudinal study of several potential mediators of the relationship between child abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 26(1), 81–91. CrossRefPubMed

Smith, P. H., White, J. W., & Holland, L. J. (2003). A longitudinal perspective on dating violence among adolescent and college-age women. American Journal of Public Health, 93(7), 1104–1109. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Spinazzola, J., Hodgdon, H., Liang, L., Ford, J. D., Layne, C. M., Pynoos, R., & Kisiel, C. (2014). Unseen wounds: The contribution of psychological abuse to child and adolescent mental health and risk outcomes. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy,. doi: 10.1037/a0037766.

Stith, S. M., Smith, D. B., Penn, C. E., Ward, D. B., & Tritt, D. (2004). Intimate partner physical abuse perpetration and victimization risk factors: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10, 65–98. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2003.09.001. CrossRef

Straus, M. A., & Hamby, S. L. (1997). Measuring physical and psychological maltreatment with the conflict tactics scales. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of Educational Research Association. Chicago, IL.

Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The revised conflict tactics scale (CTS2). Journal of Family Issues, 3, 283. CrossRef

Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Finkelhor, D., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Parent-child conflict tactics scales. Psychological Assessment, 19(4), 382–396.

Thornberry, T. P., Ireland, T. O., & Smith, C. A. (2001). The importance of timing: The varying impact of childhood and adolescent abuse on multiple problem outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 13(4), 957–979. PubMed

Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 38(1), 1–10. CrossRef

Vagi, K. J., O’Malley Olsen, E., Basile, K. C., & Vivolo-Kantor, A. M. (2015). Teen dating violence (physical and sexual) among US high school students: Findings from the 2013 national youth risk behavior survey. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(5), 474–482. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.3577. CrossRefPubMed

Vujeva, H. M., & Furman, W. (2011). Depressive symptoms and romantic relationship qualities from adolescence through emerging adulthood: A longitudinal examination of influences. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40(1), 123–135. CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Wekerle, C., Leung, E., Wall, A., MacMillan, H., Boyle, M., Trocme, N., & Waechter, R. (2009). The contribution of childhood psychological abuse to teen dating violence among child protective servicesinvolved youth. Child Abuse and Neglect, 33(1), 45–58. CrossRefPubMed

Wekerle, C., Wolfe, D. A., Hawkins, D., Pittman, A., Glickman, A., & Lovald, B. E. (2001). Childhood abuse, posttraumatic stress symptomatology, and adolescent dating violence: Considering the value of adolescent perceptions of abuse and a trauma mediational model. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 847–871. PubMed

Wolfe, D. A., Wekerle, C., Scott, K., Straatman, A. L., & Grasley, C. (2004). Predicting abuse in adolescent dating relationships over 1 year: The role of child abuse and trauma. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(3), 406–415. CrossRefPubMed

Young, J. E., & Brown, G. (1994). Young schema questionnaire-short form. NY, NY: Cognitive Therapy Center.

Titel: From Violence in the Home to Physical Dating Violence Victimization: The Mediating Role of Psychological Distress in a Prospective Study of Female Adolescents
Auteur:: Michele Cascardi
Publicatiedatum: 22-02-2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0434-1
Uitgeverij: Springer US
Tijdschrift: Journal of Youth and Adolescence A Multidisciplinary Research Publication
Uitgave 4/2016
Print ISSN: 0047-2891
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-6601

Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

Tip

Swipe om te navigeren naar een ander artikel

Abstract

Log in om toegang te krijgen

Met onderstaand(e) abonnement(en) heeft u direct toegang:

BSL Psychologie Totaal

Andere artikelen Uitgave 4/2016

Sex Differences in Sources of Resilience and Vulnerability to Risk for Delinquency

Sports Participation and Juvenile Delinquency: A Meta-Analytic Review

The Promotive and Protective Effects of Family Factors in the Context of Peer and Community Risks for Aggression

Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) and Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) Gene Polymorphisms Interact with Maternal Parenting in Association with Adolescent Reactive Aggression but not Proactive Aggression: Evidence of Differential Susceptibility

Chronic and Acute Relational Risk Factors for Dating Aggression in Adolescence and Young Adulthood

Maltreatment, Child Welfare, and Recidivism in a Sample of Deep-End Crossover Youth