Introduction
Heterogeneity of Sensory Features
Dimensional and Categorical Models
Multimodal Measurement
Present Study
Methods
Participants
Time 1 | Time 3 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ASD | TD | Cliff δa with 95% CI | ASD | TD | Cliff δa with 95% CI | |||||
Mean (SD) | Range | Mean (SD) | Range | Mean (SD) | Range | Mean (SD) | Range | |||
Chronological age (months) | 37.63 (6.24) | 25.00–56.18 | 36.77 (7.32) | 24.48–56.57 | .12 [− .03, .27] | 68.78 (11.91) | 51.88–112.16 | 67.61 (13.64) | 52.01–115.78 | .13 [− .07, .32] |
Cognitive ability (MSEL DQ at T1; DAS GCA at T3) | 63.12 (20.64) | 26.85–132.45 | 105.26 (11.81) | 79.41–128.62 | − .89*** [− .93, − .83] | 89.00 (24.43) | 32.00–130.00 | 112.80 (10.52) | 85.00–146.00 | − .63*** [− .76, − .46] |
VABS composite Scores | 75.58 (11.89) | 51.00–111.00 | 110.12 (12.06) | 82.00–137.00 | − .95*** [− .98, − .92] | 78.38 (15.61) | 47.00–122.00 | 112.15 (12.05) | 91.00–133.00 | − .90*** [− .95, − .81] |
Measures
Short Sensory Profile (SSP)
Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL)
Differential Ability Scales (DAS)
Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scales (VABS)
Childhood Behavior Checklist (CBCL)
Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ)
EEG Task and Processing
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
Factor Mixture Model (FMM)
Comparisons of Classes
ERP Analysis
Results
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
Timepoint | χ2 (df) | RMSEA | CFI | TLI | SRMR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Time 1 | 613.163 (398) | .046 | .985 | .982 | .056 |
Time 3 | 557.463 (398) | .053 | .983 | .980 | .061 |
Fit Indices and Selection of FMM
Description of Classes
Class 1–LEW Estimate (SE) | Class 2–GPL Estimate (SE) | Class 3–NL Estimate (SE) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Raw | Standardized | Raw | Standardized | Raw | Standardized | ||||
Time 1 | Time 3 | Time 1 | Time 3 | Time 1 | Time 3 | ||||
LEW | 11.164 (0.819) | 0.987 (0.004) | 0.966 (0.015) | 2.331 (0.873) | 0.791 (0.127) | 0.614 (0.193) | – 0.373 (0.183) | – 0.202 (0.078) | – 0.123 (0.066) |
TSS | 1.598 (0.723) | 0.339 (0.137) | 0.340 (0.137) | 4.217 (0.893) | 0.689 (0.082) | 0.691 (0.087) | – 2.988 (0.299) | – 0.558 (0.047) | – 0.560 (0.050) |
HYI | 1.941 (0.624) | 0.552 (0.129) | 0.503 (0.122) | 3.901 (0.621) | 0.799 (0.049) | 0.760 (0.057) | – 4.181 (0.247) | – 0.819 (0.023) | – 0.782 (0.034) |
TS | 1.580 (0.419) | 0.572 (0.106) | 0.618 (0.102) | 3.964 (0.641) | 0.869 (0.040) | 0.892 (0.037) | – 1.442 (0.156) | – 0.538 (0.047) | – 0.583 (0.046) |
MS | 1.771 (0.361) | 0.735 (0.095) | 0.764 (0.084) | 3.399 (0.706) | 0.901 (0.052) | 0.916 (0.043) | – 0.140 (0.119) | – 0.085 (0.065) | – 0.093 (0.075) |
AD | 1.770 (0.358) | 0.710 (0.074) | 0.634 (0.088) | 3.215 (0.503) | 0.878 (0.039) | 0.830 (0.045) | – 1.420 (0.185) | – 0.629 (0.049) | – 0.549 (0.063) |
HRS | 0.804 (0.235) | 0.499 (0.118) | 0.492 (0.112) | 1.544 (0.363) | 0.742 (0.086) | 0.735 (0.080) | – 1.840 (0.112) | – 0.796 (0.030) | – 0.791 (0.031) |
VS | 1.612 (0.355) | 0.715 (0.081) | 0.662 (0.085) | 1.848 (0.440) | 0.761 (0.081) | 0.711 (0.090) | – 0.653 (0.127) | – 0.383 (0.063) | – 0.337 (0.060) |
ND | 0.933 (0.229) | 0.472 (0.093) | 0.424 (0.096) | 2.020 (0.453) | 0.757 (0.080) | 0.712 (0.080) | – 0.881 (0.174) | – 0.451 (0.068) | – 0.404 (0.079) |
Actual Assigned Class | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Class 1-LEW (%) | Class 2-GPL (%) | Class 3-NL (%) | ||
Probability of Assignment to… | Class 1-LEW | 92.09 | 1.22 | 4.46 |
Class 2-GPL | 3.45 | 91.38 | 6.09 | |
Class 3-NL | 4.46 | 7.40 | 89.46 |
Classes and Diagnostic Groups
Class 1-LEW | Class 2-GPL | Class 3-NL | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ASD | TD | ASD | TD | ASD | TD | |
Count | 53 | 2 | 24 | 1 | 113 | 92 |
Percentage | 27.89% | 2.11% | 12.63% | 1.05% | 59.47% | 96.84% |
Class 1-LEW | Class 2-GPL | Class 3-NL | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ASD | TD | ASD | TD | ASD | TD | |
Time 1 | 48 (90.57%) | 2 (100.00%) | 20 (83.33%) | 1 (100.00%) | 104 (92.04%) | 84 (91.30%) |
Time 3 | 31 (58.49%) | 0 (0.00%) | 14 (58.33%) | 1 (100.00%) | 42 (37.17%) | 54 (58.70%) |
Classes and Raw SSP Scores
Mean (SD) By Class | Kruskal–Wallis Omnibus Test | Cliff’s δ Post-Hoc Effect Sizea with 95% CI | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1-LEW | 2-GPL | 3-NL | χ2 | p | η2 | LEW vs. GPL | LEW vs. NL | GPL vs. NL | |
LEW | 18.90 (6.45) | 27.05 (3.32) | 28.83 (1.84) | 84.54 | < .0001 | .49 | − .74*** [− .87, − .52] | − .87*** [− .94, − .73] | − .31* [− .55, − .01] |
TSS | 12.52 (5.07) | 9.85 (5.71) | 12.65 (5.57) | 4.45 | .11 | .02 | .28 [− .05, .56] | − .02 [− .21, .17] | − .29 [− .54, − .00] |
HYI | 13.67 (3.65) | 11.90 (3.19) | 14.45 (4.59) | 7.36 | .03 | .03 | .29 [− .02, .55] | − .12 [− .30, .07] | − .36* [− .56, − .12] |
TS | 15.57 (3.22) | 12.30 (3.42) | 16.90 (2.65) | 27.84 | < .0001 | .16 | .53** [.26, .72] | − .24* [− .42, − .04] | − .71*** [− .83, − .52] |
MS | 12.38 (1.85) | 9.85 (3.15) | 14.23 (1.26) | 61.53 | < .0001 | .35 | .49** [.15, .72] | − .59*** [− .73, − .41] | − .80*** [− .92, − .53] |
AD | 11.32 (2.12) | 9.30 (3.44) | 12.05 (2.40) | 14.99 | .0006 | .08 | .37* [.01, .64] | − .23* [− .41, − .04] | − .48** [− .70, − .16] |
HRS | 4.92 (1.37) | 3.75 (1.62) | 4.90 (1.67) | 9.79 | .007 | .05 | .44** [.13, .67] | .01 [− .18, .19] | − .40** [− .62, − .13] |
VS | 6.89 (2.42) | 6.15 (2.43) | 8.31 (1.70) | 21.00 | < .0001 | .11 | .18 [− .13, .45] | − .34** [− .52, − .14] | − .52*** [− 72, − .23] |
ND | 7.46 (1.54) | 5.15 (2.43) | 7.95 (2.14) | 23.36 | < .0001 | .13 | .57*** [.22, .79] | − .24* [− .41, − .06] | − .59*** [− .78, − .31] |
Mean (SD) By Class | Kruskal–Wallis Omnibus Test | Cliff’s δ Post-Hoc Effect Sizea with 95% CI | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1-LEW | 2-GPL | 3-NL | χ2 | p | η2 | LEW vs. GPL | LEW vs. NL | GPL vs. NL | |
LEW | 16.61 (5.99) | 23.79 (6.03) | 28.14 (2.83) | 48.65 | < .0001 | .56 | − .58** [− .80, − .22] | − .93*** [− .97, − .82] | − .42* [− .70, − .02] |
TSS | 12.47 (4.88) | 10.79 (6.02) | 12.56 (5.42) | 0.98 | .61 | .01 | .19 [− .22, .55] | − .04 [− .30, .23] | − .14 [− .49, .24] |
HYI | 14.81 (4.13) | 9.71 (2.64) | 14.76 (4.79) | 15.06 | .0005 | .16 | .71*** [.43, .86] | − .03 [− .29, .24] | − .62** [− .79, − .35] |
TS | 16.45 (2.38) | 13.79 (3.66) | 17.63 (2.22) | 14.44 | .0007 | .15 | .44* [.01, .74] | − .32* [− .55, − .05] | − .60** [− .83, − .20] |
MS | 12.19 (2.51) | 10.23 (2.24) | 14.61 (0.77) | 40.83 | < .0001 | .47 | .46* [.11, .70] | − .62*** [− .78, − .38] | − .96*** [− .99, − .84] |
AD | 9.32 (2.63) | 8.64 (1.69) | 11.17 (2.65) | 15.04 | .0005 | .16 | .14 [− .20, .45] | − .41** [− .62, − .13] | − .60** [− .78, − .33] |
HRS | 5.45 (1.67) | 5.00 (1.66) | 5.95 (1.77) | 4.29 | .12 | .03 | .13 [− .24, .47] | − .20 [− .44, .07] | − .32 [− .60, .02] |
VS | 7.52 (2.20) | 7.07 (2.34) | 8.39 (1.96) | 5.97 | .05 (n.s.) | .05 | .13 [− .27, .49] | − .27 [− .50, − .01] | − .33 [− .63, .05] |
ND | 6.06 (2.14) | 6.07 (2.34) | 6.60 (2.29) | 1.01 | .60 | .01 | − .03 [− .39, .34] | − .13 [− .38, .14] | − .12 [− .44, .23] |
Time 1 | Time 3 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | p | Cliff’s δ | Mean (SD) | p | Cliff’s δ | |||||
ASD | TD | Value | 95% CI | ASD | TD | Value | 95% CI | |||
LEW | 28.83 (1.84) | 29.75 (0.92) | < .0001 | − .29 | − .40, − .17 | 28.14 (2.83) | 29.43 (1.09) | .05 (n.s.)a | − .19 | − .38, .01 |
TSS | 12.65 (5.57) | 17.95 (2.70) | < .0001 | − .54 | − .66, − .39 | 12.56 (5.42) | 18.15 (3.24) | < .0001 | − .67 | − .80, − .47 |
HYI | 14.46 (4.59) | 19.70 (3.19) | < .0001 | − .64 | − .75, − .51 | 14.76 (4.79) | 21.59 (3.23) | < .0001 | − .76 | − .86, − .59 |
TS | 16.90 (2.65) | 18.81 (1.65) | < .0001 | − .46 | − .59, − .31 | 17.63 (2.22) | 19.31 (1.36) | < .0001 | − .57 | − .73, − .36 |
MS | 14.23 (1.26) | 14.13 (1.45) | .67 | .03 | − .12, .18 | 14.61 (0.77) | 14.44 (1.11) | .56 | .06 | − .13, .24 |
AD | 12.05 (2.40) | 13.93 (1.17) | < .0001 | − .51 | − .63, − .36 | 11.17 (2.65) | 13.69 (1.70) | < .0001 | − .61 | − .76, − .40 |
HRS | 4.90 (1.67) | 8.24 (1.49) | < .0001 | − .84 | − .90, − .74 | 5.95 (1.77) | 8.28 (1.45) | < .0001 | − .69 | − .81, − .51 |
VS | 8.31 (1.70) | 8.92 (1.17) | .03 | − .18 | − .33, − .02 | 8.39 (1.96) | 9.04 (1.50) | .09 | − .19 | − .40, .04 |
ND | 7.95 (2.14) | 8.21 (1.65) | .75 | − .03 | − .19, .14 | 6.60 (2.29) | 8.52 (1.83) | < .0001 | − .51 | − .68, − .28 |
Classes and Chronological Age in ASD
Classes and Cognitive Ability in ASD
Classes and Adaptive Behaviour in ASD
Classes and Anxiety in ASD
Classes and Sleep in ASD
Classes and ERPs in ASD
Latency
Amplitude
Class 1-LEW Mean (SD) | Class 2-GPL Mean (SD) | Class 3-NL Mean (SD) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Left | Right | Left | Right | Left | Right | |
50 dB | 1.62 (0.87) | 1.62 (0.99) | 2.02 (1.07) | 2.08 (1.52) | 1.62 (0.99) | 1.85 (0.97) |
60 dB | 1.71 (0.69) | 1.75 (0.81) | 1.95 (1.00) | 1.86 (0.85) | 1.78 (0.89) | 1.72 (0.79) |
70 dB | 1.81 (0.97) | 1.84 (0.77) | 2.26 (1.08) | 2.16 (1.14) | 1.73 (0.85) | 1.72 (0.78) |
80 dB | 1.84 (0.76) | 1.70 (0.56) | 2.70 (1.44) | 2.81 (1.50) | 1.95 (0.73) | 1.85 (0.79) |
1-LEW vs. 2-GPL | 1-LEW vs. 3-NL | 2-GPL vs. 3-NL | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
F(1,46) | p | p(cor) | \({\eta }_{G}^{2}\) | F(1,96) | p | p(cor) | \({\eta }_{G}^{2}\) | F(1,82) | p | p(cor) | \({\eta }_{G}^{2}\) | |
50 dB | 2.08 | .16 | N/A | .04 | 0.94 | .34 | N/A | .01 | 1.14 | .29 | N/A | .01 |
60 dB | 0.60 | .44 | N/A | .01 | 0.02 | .89 | N/A | .00 | 0.52 | .47 | N/A | .00 |
70 dB | 2.13 | .15 | N/A | .04 | 0.38 | .54 | N/A | .00 | 5.03 | .03 | .28 | .05 |
80 dB | 11.88 | .001 | .01 | .18 | 0.95 | .33 | N/A | .01 | 13.56 | .0004 | .005 | .12 |