Top

Gepubliceerd in:

16-06-2022 | Original Article

Evaluating individual differences in rewarded Stroop performance: reliability and associations with self-report measures

Auteurs: Brent Pitchford, Karen M. Arnell

Gepubliceerd in: Psychological Research | Uitgave 3/2023

Abstract

In three separate experiments, we examined the reliability of and relationships between self-report measures and behavioral response time measures of reward sensitivity. Using a rewarded-Stroop task we showed that reward-associated, but task-irrelevant, information interfered with task performance (MIRA) in all three experiments, but individual differences in MIRA were unreliable both within-session and over a period of approximately 4 weeks, providing clear evidence that it is not a good individual differences measure. In contrast, when the task-relevant information was rewarded, individual differences in performance benefits were remarkably reliable, even when examining performance one year later, and with a different version of a rewarded Stroop task. Despite the high reliability of the behavioral measure of reward responsiveness, behavioral reward responsiveness was not associated with self-reported reward responsiveness scores using validated questionnaires but was associated with greater self-reported self-control. Results are discussed in terms of what is actually being measured in the rewarded Stroop task.

vorige artikel Individual differences in everyday multitasking behavior and its relation to cognition and personality

volgende artikel The good, the bad, and the red: implicit color-valence associations across cultures

Only two of the conditions are included in the calculation of MIRA and the smaller number of trials per participant might have led to artificially reduced reliability for MIRA relative to the reward responsiveness measure that contains many more trials. To test this, separate correlations were conducted with a modified reward responsiveness measure that only included average RTs from two conditions: RTs to no-reward trials where the Stroop condition was incongruent, and the word was not associated with reward minus RTs to potential-reward trials where the Stroop condition was incongruent, and the word was not associated with reward. This allowed for the same number of trials to be included in the reward responsiveness and MIRA measures. In all experiments, reward responsiveness reliabilities remained remarkably high and consistent despite the reduced number of trials. Therefore, the lower reliability for the MIRA measure relative to the reward responsiveness measure is not simply a result of the fewer number of trials per participant.

One alternative method to calculating difference scores is the residualized measure approach. To calculate the residualized MIRA measure, the same conditions were included where the average RTs when the word was reward-unrelated was regressed on average RTs when the word was reward-related, and the standardized residuals were saved for further analyses. Correlations between original and residualized MIRA measures were very high (r’s > .87), and reliabilities for the residualized MIRA measure remained poor in all experiments.

Anderson, B. A., Kim, H., Britton, M. K., & Kim, A. J. (2020). Measuring attention to reward as an individual trait: The value-driven attention questionnaire (VDAQ). Psychological Research Psychologische Forschung, 84(8), 2122–2137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-019-01212-3.CrossRefPubMed

Anderson, B. A., Laurent, P. A., & Yantis, S. (2011). Value-driven attentional capture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(25), 10367–10371. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1104047108.CrossRef

Bachman, M. D., Wang, L., Gamble, M. L., & Woldorff, M. G. (2020). Physical salience and value-driven salience operate through different neural mechanisms to enhance attentional selection. The Journal of Neuroscience, 40(28), 5455–5464. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1198-19.2020.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Bühringer, G., Wittchen, H.-U., Gottlebe, K., Kufeld, C., & Goschke, T. (2008). Why people change? The role of cognitive-control processes in the onset and cessation of substance abuse disorders. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 17(S1), S4–S15. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.246.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Carter, C. S., Macdonald, A. M., Botvinick, M., Ross, L. L., Stenger, V. A., Noll, D., & Cohen, J. D. (2000). Parsing executive processes: Strategic vs. evaluative functions of the anterior cingulate cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(4), 1944–1948. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.4.1944.CrossRef

Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319.CrossRef

Dale, G., & Arnell, K. M. (2013). Investigating the stability of and relationships among global/local processing measures. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 75, 394–406. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-012-0416-7.CrossRef

Dang, J., King, K. M., & Inzlicht, M. (2020). Why are self-report and behavioral measures weakly correlated? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 24(4), 267–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2020.01.007.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

de Leeuw, J. R. (2015). jsPsych: A JavaScript library for creating behavioral experiments in a Web browser. Behavior Research Methods, 47(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-014-0458-y.CrossRefPubMed

de Ridder, D. T., Lensvelt-Mulders, G., Finkenauer, C., Stok, F. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2012). Taking stock of self-control: A meta-analysis of how trait self-control relates to a wide range of behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16(1), 76–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868311418749.CrossRefPubMed

Desimone, R., & Duncan, J. (1995). Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 18(1), 193–222. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205.CrossRefPubMed

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750.CrossRefPubMed

Draheim, C., Mashburn, C. A., Martin, J. D., & Engle, R. W. (2019). Reaction time in differential and developmental research: A review and commentary on the problems and alternatives. Psychological Bulletin, 145(5), 508. https://doi.org/10.1037/BUL0000192.CrossRefPubMed

Dreisbach, G., & Fischer, R. (2012). The role of affect and reward in the conflict-triggered adjustment of cognitive control. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 342–342. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00342.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Duckworth, A. L., & Kern, M. L. (2011). A meta-analysis of the convergent validity of self-control measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(3), 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.004.A.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Eigsti, I. M., Zayas, V., Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., Ayduk, O., Dadlani, M. B., & Casey, B. J. (2006). Predicting cognitive control from preschool to late adolescence and young adulthood. Psychological Science, 17(6), 478–484. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1467-9280.2006.01732.X.CrossRefPubMed

Engelmann, J. B., Damaraju, E., Padmala, S., & Pessoa, L. (2009). Combined effects of attention and motivation on visual task performance: Transient and sustained motivational effects. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 3, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/neuro.09.004.2009.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Enkavi, A. Z., Eisenberg, I. W., Bissett, P. G., Mazza, G. L., MacKinnon, D. P., Marsch, L. A., & Poldrack, R. A. (2019). Large-scale analysis of test–retest reliabilities of self-regulation measures. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(12), 5472–5477. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1818430116.CrossRef

Goodhew, S. C., & Edwards, M. (2019). Translating experimental paradigms into individual-differences research: Contributions, challenges, and practical recommendations. Consciousness and Cognition, 69, 14–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2019.01.008.CrossRefPubMed

Goschke, T., & Bolte, A. (2014). Emotional modulation of control dilemmas: The role of positive affect, reward, and dopamine in cognitive stability and flexibility. Neuropsychologia, 62, 403–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.07.015.CrossRefPubMed

Gruber, S. A., Rogowska, J., Holcomb, P., Soraci, S., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2002). Stroop performance in normal control subjects: An fMRI study. NeuroImage, 16(2), 349–360. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2002.1089.CrossRefPubMed

Hamilton, K. R., Sinha, R., & Potenza, M. N. (2014). Self-reported impulsivity, but not behavioral approach or inhibition, mediates the relationship between stress and self-control. Addictive Behaviors, 39(11), 1557–1564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.01.003.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Hare, T. A., Camerer, C. F., & Rangel, A. (2009). Self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system. Science, 324, 646–648. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1168450.CrossRefPubMed

Hedge, C., Powell, G., & Sumner, P. (2017). The reliability paradox: Why robust cognitive tasks do not produce reliable individual differences. Behavior Research Methods, 50, 1166–1186. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0935-1.CrossRefPubMedCentral

Hickey, C., Chelazzi, L., & Theeuwes, J. (2010). Reward guides vision when it’s your thing: Trait reward-seeking in reward-mediated visual priming. PLoS ONE, 5(11), e14087–e14087. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014087.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Hickey, C., & Peelen, M. V. (2015). Neural mechanisms of incentive salience in naturalistic human vision. Neuron, 85(3), 512–518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2014.12.049.CrossRefPubMed

Hofmann, W., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2012). What people desire, feel conflicted about, and try to resist in everyday life. Psychological Science, 23(6), 582–588. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612437426.CrossRefPubMed

Jimura, K., Chushak, M. S., & Braver, T. S. (2013). Impulsivity and self-control during intertemporal decision making linked to the neural dynamics of reward value representation. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(1), 344–357. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0919-12.2013.CrossRefPubMed

Kim, H., & Anderson, B. A. (2019). Dissociable neural mechanisms underlie value-driven and selection-driven attentional capture. Brain Research, 1708, 109–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2018.11.026.CrossRefPubMed

Kiss, M., Driver, J., & Eimer, M. (2009). Reward priority of visual target singletons modulates event-related potential signatures of attentional selection. Psychological Science, 20(2), 245–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02281.x.CrossRefPubMed

Krebs, R. M., Boehler, C. N., Appelbaum, L. G., & Woldorff, M. G. (2013). Reward associations reduce behavioral interference by changing the temporal dynamics of conflict processing. PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0053894.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Krebs, R. M., Boehler, C. N., Egner, T., & Woldorff, M. G. (2011). The neural underpinnings of how reward associations can both guide and misguide attention. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(26), 9752–9759. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0732-11.2011.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Krebs, R. M., Boehler, C. N., & Woldorff, M. G. (2010). The influence of reward associations on conflict processing in the Stroop task. Cognition, 117(3), 341–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.08.018.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Kross, E., Bruehlman-Senecal, E., Park, J., Burson, A., Dougherty, A., Shablack, H., Bremner, R., Moser, J., & Ayduk, O. (2014). Self-talk as a regulatory mechanism: How you do it matters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(2), 304–324. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035173.CrossRefPubMed

Locke, H. S., & Braver, T. S. (2008). Motivational influences on cognitive control: Behavior, brain activation, and individual differences. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 8(1), 99–112. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.8.1.99.CrossRef

MacKay, D. G., Shafto, M., Taylor, J. K., Marian, D. E., Abrams, L., & Dyer, J. R. (2004). Relations between emotion, memory, and attention: Evidence from taboo Stroop, lexical decision, and immediate memory tasks. Memory & Cognition, 32(3), 474–488. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195840.CrossRef

Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Poulton, R., Roberts, B. W., Ross, S., Sears, M. R., Thomson, W. M., & Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2693–2698. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010076108.CrossRef

O’Gorman, J. G., & Baxter, E. (2002). Self-control as a personality measure. Personality and Individual Differences, 32(3), 533–539. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00055-1.CrossRef

Patton, J. H., Stanford, M. S., & Barratt, E. S. (1995). Factor structure of the barratt impulsiveness scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51(6), 768–774. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199511)51:63.0.CO;2-1.CrossRefPubMed

Pitchford, B., & Arnell, K. M. (2019). Self-control and its influence on global/local processing: An investigation of the role of frontal alpha asymmetry and dispositional approach tendencies. Attention, Perception, and Psychophysics, 81(1), 173–187. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-018-1610-z.CrossRef

Qi, S., Zeng, Q., Ding, C., & Li, H. (2013). Neural correlates of reward-driven attentional capture in visual search. Brain Research, 1532, 32–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2013.07.044.CrossRefPubMed

Raymond, J. E., & O’Brien, J. L. (2009). Selective visual attention and motivation: The consequences of value learning in an attentional blink task. Psychological Science, 20(8), 981–988. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02391.x.CrossRefPubMed

Ridderinkhof, K., Ulldsperger, M., Crone, E. A., & Nieuwenhuis, S. (2004a). The role of the medial frontal cortex in cognitive control. Science, 306(5695), 443–447. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1100301.CrossRefPubMed

Ridderinkhof, K. R., van Den Wildenberg, W. P. M., Segalowitz, S. J., & Carter, C. S. (2004b). Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: The role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning. Brain and Cognition, 56(2), 129–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2004.09.016.CrossRefPubMed

Saunders, B., Milyavskaya, M., Etz, A., Randles, D., & Inzlicht, M. (2018). Reported self-control is not meaningfully associated with inhibition-related executive function: A Bayesian analysis. Collabra, 4(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1525/COLLABRA.134.CrossRef

Schönbrodt, F. D., & Perugini, M. (2013). At what sample size do correlations stabilize? Journal of Research in Personality, 47(5), 609–612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.05.009.CrossRef

Stanford, M. S., Mathias, C. W., Dougherty, D. M., Lake, S. L., Anderson, N. E., & Patton, J. H. (2009). Fifty years of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale: An update and review. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(5), 385–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.04.008.CrossRef

Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054651.CrossRef

Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72(2), 271–324. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x.CrossRefPubMed

Theeuwes, J. (1992). Perceptual selectivity for color and form. Perception & Psychophysics, 51(6), 599–606. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211656.CrossRef

Theeuwes, J. (2010). Top-down and bottom-up control of visual selection. Acta Psychologica, 135(2), 77–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ACTPSY.2010.02.006.CrossRefPubMed

van Steenbergen, H., Band, G. P., & Hommel, B. (2009). Reward counteracts conflict adaptation: Evidence for a role of affect in executive control. Psychological Science, 20(12), 1473–1477. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02470.x.CrossRefPubMed

Wennerhold, L., & Friese, M. (2020). Why self-report measures of self-control and inhibition tasks do not substantially correlate. Collabra, 6(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.276.CrossRef

Wolff, M., Krönke, K.-M., & Goschke, T. (2016). Trait self-control is predicted by how reward associations modulate Stroop interference. Psychological Research Psychologische Forschung, 80(6), 944–951. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-015-0707-4.CrossRefPubMed

Titel: Evaluating individual differences in rewarded Stroop performance: reliability and associations with self-report measures
Auteurs: Brent Pitchford
Karen M. Arnell
Publicatiedatum: 16-06-2022
Uitgeverij: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Gepubliceerd in: Psychological Research / Uitgave 3/2023
Print ISSN: 0340-0727
Elektronisch ISSN: 1430-2772
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-022-01689-5

Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

Abstract

Log in om toegang te krijgen

Andere artikelen Uitgave 3/2023

Does belief in free will influence biological motion perception?

Disentangling task-selection failures from task-execution failures in task switching: an assessment of different paradigms

When time stands upright: STEARC effects along the vertical axis

Can false denials turn fact into fiction? The effect of false denials on memory for self-performed actions

Individual differences in everyday multitasking behavior and its relation to cognition and personality

Post-execution monitoring in dishonesty