Empirical Validation of the Negative Emotions Scale (NES): A Hierarchical Structural Equation Model

Classifications of emotional distress in psychological therapy have typically favoured a unitary model where emotions are considered dysfunctional according to their reported intensity (i.e., quantitative). An alternative, binary model of emotional distress posits that dysfunction is based on the distinct emotion (i.e., qualitative), and is determined by irrational beliefs and associated behavioural drives. Research on the binary model (David, Montgomery, et al., in: Rational and irrational beliefs: research, theory, and clinical practice, Oxford University Press, 2005; Mogoase and Stefan, J Evid Based Psychother 13(1):13, 2013) has found challenges validating these qualitative assumptions using psychometric measures of emotional distress. A pilot study for a new scale (the Negative Emotions Scale; NES) was introduced to account for these and found partial but promising support for the binary model (O’Farrell et al., in: Discov Psychol, in press, 2025). The current study sought replication and more robust binary support with a larger adult sample (N = 529, M_age = 23.6, males = 19.3%, females = 80.0%) that completed the Mood and Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire 90-item (MASQ-90), the Negative Emotions Scale (NES), and the Attitudes and Beliefs Scale-Short Form (ABS-2-SF). Confirmatory factor analysis and hierarchical structural equation modelling indicated adequate factor loading that distinguished binary functional and dysfunctional negative emotions for NES subscales (depression–sadness, anxiety–concern, and anger–annoyance), however construct validity according to irrational beliefs was unclear, and convergent validity with the MASQ-90 was limited. Findings indicate replication of the pilot study’s factor structure and therefore partial support for the binary model. Factors influencing construct and convergent validity are discussed alongside recommendations for future research.