Skip to main content
Top
Gepubliceerd in: Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology 5/2011

01-07-2011

Effects of Exposure to Community Violence on Internalizing Symptoms: Does Desensitization to Violence Occur in African American Youth?

Auteurs: Noni K. Gaylord-Harden, Jamila A. Cunningham, Brett Zelencik

Gepubliceerd in: Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology | Uitgave 5/2011

Log in om toegang te krijgen
share
DELEN

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

  • Optie A:
    Klik op de rechtermuisknop op de link en selecteer de optie “linkadres kopiëren”
  • Optie B:
    Deel de link per e-mail

Abstract

The purpose of the current study was to examine the linear and curvilinear associations of exposure to community violence to internalizing symptoms in 251 African American adolescents (mean age = 12.86, SD = 1.28). Participants reported on exposure to community violence, anxiety symptoms, and depressive symptoms. Regression analyses were used to test the hypotheses and, consistent with predictions, the results indicated that the association between violence and depression was curvilinear; whereas the association to anxiety was linear and positive. The results highlight the importance of considering more complex models of the impact of exposure to community violence on psychological functioning in African American youth from economically- disadvantaged communities.
Literatuur
go back to reference Anderson, M., Kaufman, J., Simon, T. R., Barrios, L., Paulozzi, L., Ryan, G., et al. (2001). School-associated violent deaths in the United States, 1994–1999. JAMA, 286, 2695–2702. Anderson, M., Kaufman, J., Simon, T. R., Barrios, L., Paulozzi, L., Ryan, G., et al. (2001). School-associated violent deaths in the United States, 1994–1999. JAMA, 286, 2695–2702.
go back to reference Bell, C., & Jenkins, E. J. (1993). Community violence and children on Chicago’s Southside. Psychiatry, 56, 46–54.PubMed Bell, C., & Jenkins, E. J. (1993). Community violence and children on Chicago’s Southside. Psychiatry, 56, 46–54.PubMed
go back to reference Boxer, P., Morris, A. S., Terranova, A. M., Kithakye, M., Savoy, S., & McFaul, A. (2008). Coping with exposure to violence: Relations to aggression and emotional symptoms in three urban samples. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 17, 881–893.CrossRef Boxer, P., Morris, A. S., Terranova, A. M., Kithakye, M., Savoy, S., & McFaul, A. (2008). Coping with exposure to violence: Relations to aggression and emotional symptoms in three urban samples. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 17, 881–893.CrossRef
go back to reference Boyd, R. C., Cooley, M. R., Lambert, S. F., & Ialongo, N. S. (2003). First-grade child risk behaviors for community violence exposure in middle school. Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 297–314.CrossRef Boyd, R. C., Cooley, M. R., Lambert, S. F., & Ialongo, N. S. (2003). First-grade child risk behaviors for community violence exposure in middle school. Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 297–314.CrossRef
go back to reference Breslau, N., Wilcox, H. C., Storr, C. L., Lucia, V. C., & Anthony, J. C. (2004). Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder: A study of youths in urban America. Journal of Urban Health, 81, 530–544.PubMed Breslau, N., Wilcox, H. C., Storr, C. L., Lucia, V. C., & Anthony, J. C. (2004). Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder: A study of youths in urban America. Journal of Urban Health, 81, 530–544.PubMed
go back to reference Buka, S., Stichick, T., Birdthistle, I., & Earls, F. (2001). Youth exposure to violence: Prevalence, risks, and consequences. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71, 298–310.PubMedCrossRef Buka, S., Stichick, T., Birdthistle, I., & Earls, F. (2001). Youth exposure to violence: Prevalence, risks, and consequences. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71, 298–310.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Cassidy, R. F., & Stevenson, H. C. (2005). They wear the mask: Hypervulnerability and hypermasculine aggression among African American males in an urban remedial disciplinary school. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma, 11, 53–74.CrossRef Cassidy, R. F., & Stevenson, H. C. (2005). They wear the mask: Hypervulnerability and hypermasculine aggression among African American males in an urban remedial disciplinary school. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma, 11, 53–74.CrossRef
go back to reference Chen, W-Y. (2009). Adolescents’ internalizing behaviors after extreme violence exposure: a comparison of race and gender for African American and Asian American Youth. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 90, 145–152. Chen, W-Y. (2009). Adolescents’ internalizing behaviors after extreme violence exposure: a comparison of race and gender for African American and Asian American Youth. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 90, 145–152.
go back to reference Cooley-Quille, M., & Lorion, R. (1999). Adolescents’ exposure to community violence: Sleep and psychophysiological functioning. Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 367–375.CrossRef Cooley-Quille, M., & Lorion, R. (1999). Adolescents’ exposure to community violence: Sleep and psychophysiological functioning. Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 367–375.CrossRef
go back to reference Cooley-Quille, M., Boyd, R. C., Frantz, E., & Walsh, J. (2001). Emotional and behavioral impact of exposure to community violence in inner-city adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 199–206.PubMedCrossRef Cooley-Quille, M., Boyd, R. C., Frantz, E., & Walsh, J. (2001). Emotional and behavioral impact of exposure to community violence in inner-city adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 199–206.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Crouch, J. L., Hanson, R. F., Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., & Resnick, H. S. (2000). Income, race/ethnicity, and exposure to violence in youth: Results from the national survey of adolescents. Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 625–641.CrossRef Crouch, J. L., Hanson, R. F., Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., & Resnick, H. S. (2000). Income, race/ethnicity, and exposure to violence in youth: Results from the national survey of adolescents. Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 625–641.CrossRef
go back to reference Dempsey, M. (2002). Negative coping as mediator in the relation between violence and outcomes: Inner-city African American youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72, 102–109. Dempsey, M. (2002). Negative coping as mediator in the relation between violence and outcomes: Inner-city African American youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72, 102–109.
go back to reference Dempsey, M., Overstreet, S., & Moely, B. (2000). Approach and avoidant coping and PTSD symptoms in inner-city youth. Current Psychology: Development, Learning, Personality, Social, 19, 28–45. Dempsey, M., Overstreet, S., & Moely, B. (2000). Approach and avoidant coping and PTSD symptoms in inner-city youth. Current Psychology: Development, Learning, Personality, Social, 19, 28–45.
go back to reference Farrell, A. D., & Bruce, S. E. (1997). Impact of exposure to community violence on violent behavior and emotional distress among urban adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 2–14.PubMedCrossRef Farrell, A. D., & Bruce, S. E. (1997). Impact of exposure to community violence on violent behavior and emotional distress among urban adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 2–14.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Fehon, D. C., Grilo, D. M., & Lipschitz, D. S. (2001). Gender differences in violence exposure and violence: Risk among adolescent inpatients. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 8, 532–540.CrossRef Fehon, D. C., Grilo, D. M., & Lipschitz, D. S. (2001). Gender differences in violence exposure and violence: Risk among adolescent inpatients. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 8, 532–540.CrossRef
go back to reference Fitzpatrick, K. M. (1993). Exposure to violence and presence of depression among low-income African American youth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 528–531.PubMedCrossRef Fitzpatrick, K. M. (1993). Exposure to violence and presence of depression among low-income African American youth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 528–531.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Fitzpatrick, K. M., & Boldizar, J. M. (1993). The prevalence and consequences of exposure to community violence among African American youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 424–430.PubMedCrossRef Fitzpatrick, K. M., & Boldizar, J. M. (1993). The prevalence and consequences of exposure to community violence among African American youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 424–430.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Foster, J. D., Kupermine, G. P., & Price, A. W. (2004). Gender differences in posttraumatic stress and related symptoms among inner-city minority youth exposed to community violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 59–69.CrossRef Foster, J. D., Kupermine, G. P., & Price, A. W. (2004). Gender differences in posttraumatic stress and related symptoms among inner-city minority youth exposed to community violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 59–69.CrossRef
go back to reference Gaylord-Harden, N. K. & Cunningham, J. A. (2009). The impact of racial discrimination and coping strategies on internalizing symptoms in African American youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 532-543. Gaylord-Harden, N. K. & Cunningham, J. A. (2009). The impact of racial discrimination and coping strategies on internalizing symptoms in African American youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 532-543.
go back to reference Gladstein, J., Rusonis, E. J., & Heald, F. P. (1992). A comparison of inner-city and upper-middle class youths’ exposure to violence. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 13, 275–280.PubMedCrossRef Gladstein, J., Rusonis, E. J., & Heald, F. P. (1992). A comparison of inner-city and upper-middle class youths’ exposure to violence. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 13, 275–280.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Gonzales, N. A., Gunnoe, M. L., Jackson, K. M. & Samaniego, R. Y. (1995). Validation of a multicultural events scale for urban adolescents. Paper presented at the Biennial Conference of the Society for Community Research and Action, Chicago, IL. Gonzales, N. A., Gunnoe, M. L., Jackson, K. M. & Samaniego, R. Y. (1995). Validation of a multicultural events scale for urban adolescents. Paper presented at the Biennial Conference of the Society for Community Research and Action, Chicago, IL.
go back to reference Gonzalez, N. A., Tein, J., Sandler, I. N., & Friedman, R. J. (2001). On the limits of coping: Interactions between stress and coping for inner-city adolescents. Journal of Adolescence Research, 16, 372–395.CrossRef Gonzalez, N. A., Tein, J., Sandler, I. N., & Friedman, R. J. (2001). On the limits of coping: Interactions between stress and coping for inner-city adolescents. Journal of Adolescence Research, 16, 372–395.CrossRef
go back to reference Gorman-Smith, D., Henry, D. B., & Tolan, P. H. (2004). Exposure to community violence and violence perpetration: The protective effects of family functioning. Journal of Child Clinical and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 439–449.CrossRef Gorman-Smith, D., Henry, D. B., & Tolan, P. H. (2004). Exposure to community violence and violence perpetration: The protective effects of family functioning. Journal of Child Clinical and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 439–449.CrossRef
go back to reference Gorman-Smith, D., & Tolan, P. (1998). The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 101–116. Gorman-Smith, D., & Tolan, P. (1998). The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 101–116.
go back to reference Hammack, P., Richards, M., Luo, Z., Edlynn, E. S., & Roy, K. (2004). Elements of social support as moderators of the effect of exposure to community violence on internalizing symptoms among inner-city African American young adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 450–462. Hammack, P., Richards, M., Luo, Z., Edlynn, E. S., & Roy, K. (2004). Elements of social support as moderators of the effect of exposure to community violence on internalizing symptoms among inner-city African American young adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 450–462.
go back to reference Horowitz, J. L., & Garber, J. (2006). The prevention of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 401–415.PubMedCrossRef Horowitz, J. L., & Garber, J. (2006). The prevention of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 401–415.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Jaycox, L. (2004). Cognitive-behavioral intervention for trauma in schools. Longmont: Sopris West. Jaycox, L. (2004). Cognitive-behavioral intervention for trauma in schools. Longmont: Sopris West.
go back to reference Jenkins, E. J., & Bell, C. C. (1994). Violence among inner city high school students and post-traumatic stress disorders. In S. Friedman, (ed.), Anxiety Disorders in African-Americans. New York: Springer Publishing Co. Jenkins, E. J., & Bell, C. C. (1994). Violence among inner city high school students and post-traumatic stress disorders. In S. Friedman, (ed.), Anxiety Disorders in African-Americans. New York: Springer Publishing Co.
go back to reference Johnson, P. D., & Kliewer, W. (1999). Family and contextual predictors of depressive symptoms in inner-city African American youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 8, 181–192.CrossRef Johnson, P. D., & Kliewer, W. (1999). Family and contextual predictors of depressive symptoms in inner-city African American youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 8, 181–192.CrossRef
go back to reference Kazdin, A. E. (1990). Childhood depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 121–160.PubMedCrossRef Kazdin, A. E. (1990). Childhood depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 121–160.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Kliewer, W., & Kung, E. (1998). Family moderators of the relation between hassles and behavior problems in inner-city youth. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 278–292.PubMedCrossRef Kliewer, W., & Kung, E. (1998). Family moderators of the relation between hassles and behavior problems in inner-city youth. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 278–292.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Kovacs, M. (1992). Children depression inventory manual. North Tonawanda: Multi-Health Systems, Inc. Kovacs, M. (1992). Children depression inventory manual. North Tonawanda: Multi-Health Systems, Inc.
go back to reference LeDoux, J. E. (1993). Emotional networks in the brain. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 109–118). New York: Guilford Press. LeDoux, J. E. (1993). Emotional networks in the brain. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 109–118). New York: Guilford Press.
go back to reference Limbos, M. A., Chan, L. S., Warf, C., Schneir, A., Iverson, E., Shekelle, P., et al. (2007). Effectiveness of interventions to prevent youth violence: A systematic review. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 33, 65–74.CrossRef Limbos, M. A., Chan, L. S., Warf, C., Schneir, A., Iverson, E., Shekelle, P., et al. (2007). Effectiveness of interventions to prevent youth violence: A systematic review. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 33, 65–74.CrossRef
go back to reference Malik, S., Sorenson, S. B., & Aneshensel, C. S. (1997). Community and dating violence among adolescents: Perpetration and victimization. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, 291–302.PubMedCrossRef Malik, S., Sorenson, S. B., & Aneshensel, C. S. (1997). Community and dating violence among adolescents: Perpetration and victimization. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, 291–302.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Margolin, G., & Gordis, E. B. (2000). The effects of family and community violence on children. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 445–479.PubMedCrossRef Margolin, G., & Gordis, E. B. (2000). The effects of family and community violence on children. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 445–479.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference McCart, M. R., Smith, D. W., Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., & Ruggiero, K. J. (2007). Do urban adolescents become desensitized to community violence? Data from a national survey. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77, 434–442.PubMedCrossRef McCart, M. R., Smith, D. W., Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., & Ruggiero, K. J. (2007). Do urban adolescents become desensitized to community violence? Data from a national survey. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77, 434–442.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference McMahon, S. D., & Watts, R. J. (2002). Ethnic identity in African American youth: Exploring links with self-worth, aggression, and other psychosocial variables. Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 411–431.CrossRef McMahon, S. D., & Watts, R. J. (2002). Ethnic identity in African American youth: Exploring links with self-worth, aggression, and other psychosocial variables. Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 411–431.CrossRef
go back to reference Mrug, S., Loosier, P., & Windle, M. (2008). Violence exposure across multiple contexts: Individual and joint effects on adjustment. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78, 70–84.PubMedCrossRef Mrug, S., Loosier, P., & Windle, M. (2008). Violence exposure across multiple contexts: Individual and joint effects on adjustment. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78, 70–84.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Ng-Mak, D. S., Salzinger, S., Feldman, R. S., & Stueve, A. C. (2002). Normalization of violence among inner-city youth: A formulation of research. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72, 92–101.PubMedCrossRef Ng-Mak, D. S., Salzinger, S., Feldman, R. S., & Stueve, A. C. (2002). Normalization of violence among inner-city youth: A formulation of research. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72, 92–101.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Ng-Mak, D. S., Salzinger, S., Feldman, R. S., & Stueve, A. C. (2004). Pathologic adaptation to community violence among inner-city youth. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 74, 196–208.PubMedCrossRef Ng-Mak, D. S., Salzinger, S., Feldman, R. S., & Stueve, A. C. (2004). Pathologic adaptation to community violence among inner-city youth. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 74, 196–208.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1994). An interactive model for the emergence of gender differences in depression in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 519–534.CrossRef Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1994). An interactive model for the emergence of gender differences in depression in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 519–534.CrossRef
go back to reference O’Keefe, M., & Sela-Amit, M. (1997). An examination of the effects of race/ethnicity and social class on adolescent's exposure to violence. Journal of Social Service Research, 22, 53–71.CrossRef O’Keefe, M., & Sela-Amit, M. (1997). An examination of the effects of race/ethnicity and social class on adolescent's exposure to violence. Journal of Social Service Research, 22, 53–71.CrossRef
go back to reference Phelps, L. F., McCart, M. R., & Davies, W. H. (2002). The impact of community violence on children and parents: Development of contextual assessments. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse: A Review Journal, 3, 194–209.CrossRef Phelps, L. F., McCart, M. R., & Davies, W. H. (2002). The impact of community violence on children and parents: Development of contextual assessments. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse: A Review Journal, 3, 194–209.CrossRef
go back to reference Politano, P. M., Nelson, W. M., Evans, H. E., Sorenson, S. B., & Zeman, D. J. (1986). Factor analytic evaluation of differences between Black and Caucasian emotionally disturbed children on the Children’s Depression Inventory. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 8, 1–7.CrossRef Politano, P. M., Nelson, W. M., Evans, H. E., Sorenson, S. B., & Zeman, D. J. (1986). Factor analytic evaluation of differences between Black and Caucasian emotionally disturbed children on the Children’s Depression Inventory. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 8, 1–7.CrossRef
go back to reference Prelow, H. M., Danoff-Burg, S., & Swenson, R. R. (2004). The impact of ecological risk and perceived discrimination on the psychological adjustment of African American and European American youth. Journal of Community Psychology, 32, 375–389.CrossRef Prelow, H. M., Danoff-Burg, S., & Swenson, R. R. (2004). The impact of ecological risk and perceived discrimination on the psychological adjustment of African American and European American youth. Journal of Community Psychology, 32, 375–389.CrossRef
go back to reference Reese, L. R. E., Vera, E. M., Thompson, K., & Reyes, R. (2001). A qualitative investigation of perceptions of violence risk factors in low-income African American children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 161–171.PubMedCrossRef Reese, L. R. E., Vera, E. M., Thompson, K., & Reyes, R. (2001). A qualitative investigation of perceptions of violence risk factors in low-income African American children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 161–171.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. O. (2000). Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) Manual. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services. Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. O. (2000). Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) Manual. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
go back to reference Reynolds, L. K., O’Koon, J. H., Papademetriou, E., Szczygiel, S., & Grant, K. E. (2001). Stress and somatic complaints in low-income urban adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30, 499–514.CrossRef Reynolds, L. K., O’Koon, J. H., Papademetriou, E., Szczygiel, S., & Grant, K. E. (2001). Stress and somatic complaints in low-income urban adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30, 499–514.CrossRef
go back to reference Rosario, M., Salzinger, S., Feldman, R. S., & Ng-Mak, D. S. (2008). Intervening processes between youths’ exposure to community violence and internalizing symptoms over time: The roles of social support and coping. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41, 43–62. Rosario, M., Salzinger, S., Feldman, R. S., & Ng-Mak, D. S. (2008). Intervening processes between youths’ exposure to community violence and internalizing symptoms over time: The roles of social support and coping. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41, 43–62.
go back to reference Schwab-Stone, M. E., Ayers, T. S., Kasprow, W., Voyce, C., Barone, C., Shriver, T., et al. (1995). No safe haven: A study of violence exposure in an urban community. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1343–1352.PubMedCrossRef Schwab-Stone, M. E., Ayers, T. S., Kasprow, W., Voyce, C., Barone, C., Shriver, T., et al. (1995). No safe haven: A study of violence exposure in an urban community. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1343–1352.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Selner-O’Hagan, M., Buka, S., Kindlon, D., Raudenbush, S., & Earls, F. (1998). Urban youth exposure to violence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 39, 215–224.CrossRef Selner-O’Hagan, M., Buka, S., Kindlon, D., Raudenbush, S., & Earls, F. (1998). Urban youth exposure to violence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 39, 215–224.CrossRef
go back to reference Singer, M. I., Anglin, T. M., Song, L. Y., & Lunghofer, L. (1995). Adolescents’ exposure to violence and associated symptoms of trauma. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 477–482. Singer, M. I., Anglin, T. M., Song, L. Y., & Lunghofer, L. (1995). Adolescents’ exposure to violence and associated symptoms of trauma. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 477–482.
go back to reference Springer, C., & Padgett, D. (2000). Gender differences in young adolescents’ exposure to violence and rates of PTSD symptomatology. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 370–379.PubMedCrossRef Springer, C., & Padgett, D. (2000). Gender differences in young adolescents’ exposure to violence and rates of PTSD symptomatology. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 370–379.PubMedCrossRef
go back to reference Surgeon General, U. S. (2001). Youth violence: A report of the surgeon general. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Surgeon General, U. S. (2001). Youth violence: A report of the surgeon general. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
go back to reference White, K. S., & Farrell, A. D. (2006). Anxiety and psychosocial stress as predictors of headache and abdominal pain in urban early adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31, 582–596. White, K. S., & Farrell, A. D. (2006). Anxiety and psychosocial stress as predictors of headache and abdominal pain in urban early adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31, 582–596.
go back to reference White, K. S., Bruce, S. E., Farrell, A. D., & Kliewer, W. (1998). Impact of exposure to violence on anxiety: A longitudinal study of family social support as a protective factor for urban children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 7, 187–203.CrossRef White, K. S., Bruce, S. E., Farrell, A. D., & Kliewer, W. (1998). Impact of exposure to violence on anxiety: A longitudinal study of family social support as a protective factor for urban children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 7, 187–203.CrossRef
Metagegevens
Titel
Effects of Exposure to Community Violence on Internalizing Symptoms: Does Desensitization to Violence Occur in African American Youth?
Auteurs
Noni K. Gaylord-Harden
Jamila A. Cunningham
Brett Zelencik
Publicatiedatum
01-07-2011
Uitgeverij
Springer US
Gepubliceerd in
Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology / Uitgave 5/2011
Print ISSN: 2730-7166
Elektronisch ISSN: 2730-7174
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9510-x

Andere artikelen Uitgave 5/2011

Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology 5/2011 Naar de uitgave