Introduction
Dual Identity Development
Dual Identity and Adjustment
Current Study
Methods
Procedure and Sample Description
Total (n = 2145) | England (n = 339) | Germany (n = 736) | Netherlands (n = 513) | Sweden (n = 557) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Social background | ||||||
Female | 51.1% | 47.0%a | 50.1%a,b | 49.1%a,b | 56.6%b | F (3,2140) = 3.32* |
Age T1 in years | 15.14 (0.67) | 15.07 (0.38)a | 15.41 (0.74)b | 15.30 (0.66)c | 14.67 (0.42)d | F (3,2088) = 167.61*** |
1st generation | 23.0% | 26.0%a | 18.9%b | 18.5%b | 30.9%a | F (3,2141) = 11.50*** |
Father university | 28.4% | 36.5%a | 11.5%b | 18.9%c | 57.0%d | F (3,1777) = 118.40*** |
Mother university | 19.8% | 17.6%a | 5.8%b | 11.8%c | 48.4%d | F (3,1838) = 138.84*** |
Region of origin | ||||||
Asian-Pacific | 19.2% | 78.5%a | 3.5%b | 6.0%b | 15.8%c | F (3,2141) = 563.99*** |
European | 12.7% | 3.0%a | 11.8%b | 2.7%a | 29.1%c | F (3,2141) = 77.48*** |
Middle-East | 22.0% | 3.5%a | 9.5%b | 44.4%c | 29.1%d | F (3,2141) = 116.52*** |
Sub-Sahara Africa | 7.2% | 9.4%a | 2.6%b | 2.5%b | 16.3%c | F (3,2141) = 39.31*** |
Turkey | 37.5% | 1.2%a | 72.6%b | 42.1%c | 9.0%d | F (3,2141) = 403.57*** |
Dual identity | ||||||
Ethnic identity T1 | 3.44 (0.67) | 3.33 (0.69)a | 3.47 (0.63)b | 3.64 (0.56)c | 3.28 (0.76)a | F (3,2081) = 29.68*** |
Ethnic identity T2 | 3.46 (0.67) | 3.38 (0.62)a | 3.50 (0.62)b | 3.59 (0.61)b | 3.36 (0.78)a | F (3,1424) = 8.66*** |
Ethnic identity T3 | 3.40 (0.68) | 3.34 (0.63)a,b | 3.49 (0.67)b | 3.48 (0.64)b | 3.25 (0.72)a | F (3842) = 6.83*** |
National identity T1 | 2.58 (0.89) | 2.99 (0.77)a | 2.24 (0.93)b | 2.81 (0.86)c | 2.55 (0.78)d | F (3,2116) = 77.81*** |
National identity T2 | 2.66 (0.89) | 2.99 (0.77)a | 2.42 (0.96)b | 2.82 (0.86)c | 2.66 (0.81)d | F (3,1647) = 32.65*** |
National identity T3 | 2.82 (0.84) | 3.14 (0.71)a | 2.63 (0.91)b | 2.91 (0.75)c | 2.84 (0.77)c | F (3,1116) = 18.35*** |
Adjustment | ||||||
Problem behaviour at school T1 | 1.78 (0.69) | 2.03 (0.80)a | 1.69 (0.59)b | 1.89 (0.73)c | 1.65 (0.67)b | F (3,2137) = 30.05*** |
Problem behaviour at school T2 | 1.71 (0.67) | 1.81 (0.73)a | 1.66 (0.60)b | 1.77 (0.74)a,b | 1.65 (0.65)b | F (3,1556) = 5.14** |
Problem behaviour at school T3 | 1.70 (0.66) | 1.74 (0.63)a | 1.67 (0.61)a,b | 1.53 (0.56)b | 1.75 (0.75)a | F (3765) = 2.80* |
Delinquent behaviour T1 | 0.33 (0.72) | 0.35 (0.75)a,b | 0.39 (0.73)b | 0.25 (0.64)a | 0.32 (0.75)a,b | F (3,1915) = 3.73* |
Delinquent behaviour T2 | 0.31 (0.72) | 0.27 (0.67) | 0.32 (0.70) | 0.36 (0.83) | 0.30 (0.66) | F (3,1612) = 0.84 |
Delinquent behaviour T3 | 0.20 (0.56) | 0.15 (0.44) | 0.23 (0.58) | 0.21 (0.67) | 0.16 (0.51) | F (3,1115) = 1.65 |
Intergroup contact T1 | 3.36 (1.23) | 2.64 (1.06)a | 2.83 (1.27)a | 2.27 (1.18)b | 2.73 (1.22)a | F (3,2024) = 21.86*** |
Intergroup contact T2 | 3.51 (1.19) | 2.38 (1.07)a,c | 2.61 (1.19)b | 2.33 (1.24)a | 2.55 (1.21)b,c | F (3,1624) = 5.29** |
Intergroup contact T3 | 3.32 (1.24) | 2.42 (1.14)a | 2.73 (1.27)b | 2.59 (1.25)a,b | 2.82 (1.22)b | F (3,1090) = 4.44** |
Internalizing problems T1 | 1.93 (0.65) | 2.15 (0.67)a | 2.09 (0.65)a | 1.81 (0.59)b | 1.70 (0.60)c | F (3,2135) = 60.08*** |
Internalizing problems T2 | 2.01 (0.75) | 2.03 (0.78)a | 2.23 (0.72)b | 1.87 (0.63)c | 1.87 (0.80)c | F (3,1557) = 24.20*** |
Internalizing problems T3 | 2.04 (0.70) | 2.15 (0.79) | 2.01 (0.62) | – | 2.03 (0.75) | F (3911) = 2.96 |
Life satisfaction T1 | 7.96 (2.09) | 7.69 (2.05)a | 7.47 (2.42)a | 8.24 (1.65)b | 8.53 (1.84)b | F (3,2116) = 33.14*** |
Life satisfaction T2 | 7.97 (2.21) | 7.74 (2.04)a | 7.61 (2.43)a | 8.51 (1.59)b | 8.16 (2.32)b | F (3,1644) = 14.68*** |
Life satisfaction T3 | 7.91 (1.80) | 7.58 (1.92)a | 8.06 (1.79)b | 7.86 (1.68)a,b | 7.90 (1.81)a,b | F (3,1109) = 3.14* |
Health T1 | 3.46 (0.87) | 3.35 (0.88)a | 3.41 (0.85)a,b | 3.51 (0.86)b | 3.54 (0.88)b | F (3,2134) = 4.90** |
Health T2 | 3.39 (0.91) | 3.34 (0.91) | 3.40 (0.88) | 3.48 (0.92) | 3.35 (0.94) | F (3,1628) = 1.65 |
Health T3 | 3.47 (0.87) | 3.45 (0.85)a,b | 3.55 (0.83)b | 3.51 (0.80)a,b | 3.33 (0.98)a | F (3,1097) = 3.87** |
Measures
Dual identity
Adjustment
Demographic variables
Measurement Invariance
Missing Data
Sex | Age | GEN | EDF | EDM | EI | NI | PBS | DEL | CON | INP | SAT | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | −0.10*** | |||||||||||
GEN | −0.04 | 0.09*** | ||||||||||
EDUF | −0.01 | −0.19*** | 0.14*** | |||||||||
EDUM | −0.00 | −0.19*** | 0.10*** | 0.54*** | ||||||||
EI | −0.02 | 0.06** | −0.02 | −0.12*** | −0.10*** | |||||||
NI | 0.02 | −0.04 | −0.07** | −0.00 | −0.03 | −0.08** | ||||||
PBS | −0.13*** | 0.07** | −0.01 | −0.03 | −0.03 | 0.01 | −0.06** | |||||
DEL | −0.17*** | 0.06** | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 | −0.13*** | 0.38*** | ||||
CON | −0.00 | −0.02 | 0.03 | 0.05* | 0.08** | −0.14*** | 0.15 | −0.12*** | −0.03 | |||
INP | 0.23*** | 0.12*** | 0.00 | −0.09*** | −0.12*** | −0.14*** | −0.06** | 0.14*** | 0.12*** | 0.07** | ||
SAT | −0.16*** | −0.10*** | −0.02 | 0.10*** | 0.11*** | 0.12*** | 0.08*** | −0.15*** | −0.15*** | −0.02 | −0.47*** | |
HEA | −0.24*** | −0.06* | 0.04* | 0.04 | 0.05* | 0.08*** | 0.02 | −0.23*** | −0.15*** | −0.01 | −0.44*** | 0.27*** |
Statistical Analyses
Results
Average Dual Identity Development
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ethnic identity | – | −0.13*** | −0.06 | 0.03 | −0.15*** | −0.06 | 0.15*** | 0.04 |
National identity | −0.11*** | – | −0.11** | −0.04 | 0.22*** | −0.05 | 0.07 | 0.01 |
Problem behaviour at school | −0.04 | −0.09** | – | 0.25 *** | −0.10** | 0.23*** | −0.22*** | −0.26*** |
Delinquent behaviour | −0.00 | −0.10*** | 0.41*** | – | −0.01 | 0.04 | −0.14*** | −0.08* |
Intergroup contact | −0.13*** | 0.16*** | −0.05* | −0.03 | – | 0.03 | −0.00 | −0.05 |
Internalizing problems | −0.12*** | −0.05* | 0.14*** | 0.07* | 0.07** | – | −0.52*** | −0.50*** |
Life satisfaction | 0.15*** | 0.02 | −0.17*** | −0.12*** | −0.02 | −0.52*** | – | 0.31*** |
Health | 0.08** | 0.03 | −0.25*** | −0.13*** | −0.01 | −0.44*** | 0.26*** | – |
Classes of Dual Identity Development
Classes | BIC | LMR–LRT | BLRT | Entropy | n1 | n2 | n3 | n4 | n5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2 | 20,446.25 | −10,322.38 | −10,322.38*** | 0.941 | 1149 | 995 | |||
3 | 16,526.32 | −10,131.08 | −10,131.08*** | 0.979 | 827 | 1142 | 176 | ||
4 | 16,509.61 | −8151.94** | −8151.94*** | 0.839 | 827 | 830 | 176 | 311 | |
5 | 16,508.91 | −8124.41 | −8124.41*** | 0.851 | 827 | 821 | 176 | 302 | 18 |
χ2 (df) | p for χ2 | TLI | CFI | RMSEA | 90% C.I. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Problem behaviour at school | 3.09 (7) | 0.877 | 1.021 | 1.000 | 0.000 | 0.000, 0.027 |
Delinquent behaviour | 14.73 (7) | 0.040 | 0.921 | 0.954 | 0.046 | 0.010, 0.080 |
Intergroup contact | 4.15 (6) | 0.656 | 1.007 | 1.000 | 0.000 | 0.000, 0.046 |
Internalizing problems | 9.24 (7) | 0.236 | 0.992 | 0.996 | 0.025 | 0.000, 0.062 |
Life satisfaction | 7.13 (7) | 0.415 | 0.999 | 0.999 | 0.006 | 0.000, 0.054 |
Health | 3.17 (6) | 0.787 | 1.009 | 1.000 | 0.000 | 0.000, 0.037 |
Class 1 | Class 2 | Class 3 | Class 4 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Problem behaviour at school | Intercept | 1.76 (0.03)a | 1.79 (0.03)a | 1.78 (0.06)a | 1.81 (0.04)a |
Slope | −0.03 (0.03)a,b | −0.10 (0.03)**a | −0.03 (0.08)a,b | 0.05 (0.07)b | |
Delinquent behaviour | Intercept | 0.33 (0.03)a | 0.30 (0.03)a | 0.34 (0.05)a,b | 0.44 (0.05)b |
Slope | −0.11 (0.03)**a | −0.13 (0.03)***a | −0.12 (0.05)*a | −0.16 (0.05)**a | |
Intergroup contact | Intercept | 2.75 (0.05)a | 2.52 (0.05)b | 2.99 (0.10)c | 2.44 (0.09)b |
Slope | −0.03 (0.06)a | 0.17 (0.06)**b | −0.09 (0.12)a | −0.16 (0.09)a | |
Internalizing problems | Intercept | 2.00 (0.03)a | 1.82 (0.02)b | 2.14 (0.06)c | 1.94 (0.04)a |
Slope | 0.07 (0.03)*a | 0.08 (0.03)**a | 0.10 (0.07)a | 0.09 (0.05)a | |
Life satisfaction | Intercept | 7.75 (0.08)a,c | 8.29 (0.07)b | 7.42 (0.19)a | 7.91 (0.14)c |
Slope | −0.00 (0.09)a | −0.02 (0.09)a | 0.04 (0.22)a | 0.12 (0.15)a | |
Health | Intercept | 3.39 (0.03)a | 3.53 (0.03)b | 3.32 (0.07)a | 3.51 (0.05)b |
Slope | 0.05 (0.04)a | 0.04 (0.04)a | 0.10 (0.08)a | 0.02 (0.05)a |