Skip to main content
Search
Search
    Quick Search anywhere
    Quick search in Citations
Advanced Search
Skip main navigationClose Drawer MenuOpen Drawer Menu
Previous article
Next article
Short Research Article

Does Watching Videos With Natural Scenery Restore Attentional Resources?

A Critical Examination Through a Pre-Registered Within-Subject Experiment

Published Online:May 03, 2023https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000578

Abstract

Abstract. Existing studies have shown that direct exposure to a real nature environment has a restorative effect on attentional resources after a mentally fatiguing task. However, it remains unclear whether virtual nature simulations can serve as a substitute for real nature experienced in the outdoors to restore executive attention. Given the mixed findings in the literature, the present study sought to examine if viewing videos with natural scenery (vs. a control with urban scenery) restores participants’ working memory capacity – measured by an operation span task – in a high-powered pre-registered within-subject experimental study. Overall, our within-subject experiment did not find any evidence to support the benefit of watching videos with natural scenery on restoration of executive attention. Moreover, the results from our Bayesian analyses further showed substantial support for the null hypothesis. Our study suggests that virtual nature simulations, even with the use of videos, may not be able to replicate the experiences of nature in the outdoors and restore attentional resources.

References

  • Baggetta, P., & Alexander, P. A. (2016). Conceptualization and operationalization of executive function: Executive function. Mind, Brain, and Education, 10(1), 10–33. 10.1111/mbe.12100 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Barnes, M. R., Donahue, M. L., Keeler, B. L., Shorb, C. M., Mohtadi, T. Z., & Shelby, L. J. (2019). Characterizing nature and participant experience in studies of nature exposure for positive mental health: An integrative review. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 2617. 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02617 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Berman, M. G., Jonides, J., & Kaplan, S. (2008). The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature. Psychological Science, 19(12), 1207–1212. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02225.x First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Berman, M. G., Kross, E., Krpan, K. M., Askren, M. K., Burson, A., Deldin, P. J., Kaplan, S., Sherdell, L., Gotlib, I. H., & Jonides, J. (2012). Interacting with nature improves cognition and affect for individuals with depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 140(3), 300–305. 10.1016/j.jad.2012.03.012 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Berto, R. (2005). Exposure to restorative environments helps restore attentional capacity. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 25(3), 249–259. 10.1016/j.jenvp.2005.07.001 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bourrier, S. C., Berman, M. G., & Enns, J. T. (2018). Cognitive strategies and natural environments interact in influencing executive function. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 1248. 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01248 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Bratman, G. N., Anderson, C. B., Berman, M. G., Cochran, B., de Vries, S., Flanders, J., Folke, C., Frumkin, H., Gross, J. J., Hartig, T., Kahn, P. H., Kuo, M., Lawler, J. J., Levin, P. S., Lindahl, T., Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Mitchell, R., Ouyang, Z., Roe, J., … Daily, G. C. (2019). Nature and mental health: An ecosystem service perspective. Science Advances, 5(7), Article eaax0903. 10.1126/sciadv.aax0903 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Bratman, G. N., Daily, G. C., Levy, B. J., & Gross, J. J. (2015). The benefits of nature experience: Improved affect and cognition. Landscape and Urban Planning, 138, 41–50. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.02.005 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Bratman, G. N., Hamilton, J. P., & Daily, G. C. (2012). The impacts of nature experience on human cognitive function and mental health: Nature experience, cognitive function, and mental health. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1249(1), 118–136. 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06400.x First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Cassarino, M., Maisto, M., Esposito, Y., Guerrero, D., Chan, J. S., & Setti, A. (2019). Testing attention restoration in a virtual reality driving simulator. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 250. 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00250 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Cassarino, M., Tuohy, I. C., & Setti, A. (2019). Sometimes nature doesn’t work: Absence of attention restoration in older adults exposed to environmental scenes. Experimental Aging Research, 45(4), 372–385. 10.1080/0361073X.2019.1627497 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Charness, G., Gneezy, U., & Kuhn, M. A. (2012). Experimental methods: Between-subject and within-subject design. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 81(1), 1–8. 10.1016/j.jebo.2011.08.009 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2003). Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(12), 547–552. 10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Conway, A. R., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W. (2005). Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(5), 769–786. 10.3758/BF03196772 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Emfield, A. G., & Neider, M. B. (2014). Evaluating visual and auditory contributions to the cognitive restoration effect. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 548. 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00548 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Erdinc, H. (2021). Watching a nature video improves negative affect and stress but does not change positive affect [Master Thesis]. University of Glasgow. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Faber Taylor, A., & Kuo, F. E. (2009). Children with attention deficits concentrate better after walk in the park. Journal of Attention Disorders, 12(5), 402–409. 10.1177/1087054708323000 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. 10.3758/BF03193146 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Foster, J. L., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Draheim, C., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2017). Do the effects of working memory training depend on baseline ability level? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(11), 1677–1689. 10.1037/xlm0000426 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Foster, J. L., Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2015). Shortened complex span tasks can reliably measure working memory capacity. Memory & Cognition, 43, 226–236. 10.3758/s13421-014-0461-7 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Frigione, I., Massetti, G., Girondini, M., Etzi, R., Scurati, G. W., Ferrise, F., Chirico, A., Gaggioli, A., & Gallace, A. (2022). An exploratory study on the effect of virtual environments on cognitive performances and psychophysiological responses. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 25(10), 666–671. 10.1089/cyber.2021.0162 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Gallant, S. N. (2016). Mindfulness meditation practice and executive functioning: Breaking down the benefit. Consciousness and Cognition, 40, 116–130. 10.1016/j.concog.2016.01.005 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Gamble, K. R., Howard, J. H., & Howard, D. V. (2014). Not just scenery: Viewing nature pictures improves executive attention in older adults. Experimental Aging Research, 40(5), 513–530. 10.1080/0361073X.2014.956618 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Gao, Z., Ye, T., Shen, M., & Perry, A. (2016). Working memory capacity of biological movements predicts empathy traits. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(2), 468–475. 10.3758/s13423-015-0896-2 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Knight, C., & Stegmann, Z. (2004). Working memory skills and educational attainment: Evidence from national curriculum assessments at 7 and 14 years of age. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18(1), 1–16. 10.1002/acp.934 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Gillis, K., & Gatersleben, B. (2015). A review of psychological literature on the health and wellbeing benefits of biophilic design. Buildings, 5(3), 948–963. 10.3390/buildings5030948 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Goh, A. Y., Chia, S. M., Majeed, N. M., Chen, N. R., & Hartanto, A. (2023). Untangling the additive and multiplicative relations between natural scenery exposure and human–animal interaction on affective well-being: Evidence from daily diary studies. Sustainability, 15(4), 2910. 10.3390/su15042910 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Goodman, S. N. (1999). Toward evidence-based medical statistics. 2: The Bayes factor. Annals of Internal Medicine, 130(12), 1005–1013. 10.7326/0003-4819-130-12-199906150-00019 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Harrison, T. L., Shipstead, Z., Hicks, K. L., Hambrick, D. Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2013). Working memory training may increase working memory capacity but not fluid intelligence. Psychological Science, 24(12), 2409–2419. 10.1177/0956797613492984 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Hartanto, A., Ong, N. C. H., Ng, W. Q., & Majeed, N. M. (2020). The effect of state gratitude on cognitive flexibility: A within-subject experimental approach. Brain Sciences, 10(7), Article 413. 10.3390/brainsci10070413 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Hartanto, A., Teo, N. L. A., Lua, V. Y. Q., Tay, K. J. Y., Chen, N. R. Y., & Majeed, N. M. (2023). Pre-registration and data for: "Does watching videos with natural scenery restore attentional resources? A critical examination through a pre-registered within-subject experiment. https://researchbox.org/861 First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Hartanto, A., & Yang, H. (2020). The role of bilingual interactional contexts in predicting interindividual variability in executive functions: A latent variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 149(4), 609–633. 10.1037/xge0000672 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Hartig, T., Evans, G. W., Jamner, L. D., Davis, D. S., & Gärling, T. (2003). Tracking restoration in natural and urban field settings. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23(2), 109–123. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hoijtink, H., Mulder, J., van Lissa, C., & Gu, X. (2019). A tutorial on testing hypotheses using the Bayes factor. Psychological Methods, 24(5), 539–556. 10.1037/met0000201 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Houlden, V., Jani, A., & Hong, A. (2021). Is biodiversity of greenspace important for human health and wellbeing? A bibliometric analysis and systematic literature review. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 66, Article 127385. 10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127385 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Hunt, J. T., Howell, A. J., & Passmore, H. A. (2020). In vivo nature exposure as a positive psychological intervention: A review of the impact of nature interventions on wellbeing. In E. BrymerM. RogersonJ. Barton (Eds.), Nature and health: Physical activity in nature (pp. 160–174). Routledge. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Huynh, Q., Craig, W., Janssen, I., & Pickett, W. (2013). Exposure to public natural space as a protective factor for emotional well-being among young people in Canada. BMC Public Health, 13(1), Article 407. 10.1186/1471-2458-13-407 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Jamrozik, A., Clements, N., Hasan, S. S., Zhao, J., Zhang, R., Campanella, C., Loftness, V., Porter, P., Ly, S., Wang, S., & Bauer, B. (2019). Access to daylight and view in an office improves cognitive performance and satisfaction and reduces eyestrain: A controlled crossover study. Building and Environment, 165, Article 106379. 10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106379 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • JASP Team (2022). JASP (0.16.3). https://jasp-stats.org/2022/06/16/introducing-jasp-0-16-3-quality-control-glms-bayesian-state-space-models-improvements-to-bayesian-anova-and-more/ First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Johnson, J. A., Hansen, B. E., Funk, E. L., Elezovic, F. L., & Finley, J.-C. A. (2021). Conceptual replication study and meta-analysis suggest simulated nature does not reliably restore pure executive attention measured by the attention network task. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 78, Article 101709. 10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101709 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Johnson, K. A., Pontvianne, A., Ly, V., Jin, R., Januar, J. H., Machida, K., Sargent, L. D., Lee, K. E., Williams, N. S. G., & Williams, K. J. H. (2022). Water and meadow views both afford perceived but not performance-based attention restoration: Results from two experimental studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 809629. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.809629 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Joye, Y., & Van den Berg, A. (2011). Is love for green in our genes? A critical analysis of evolutionary assumptions in restorative environments research. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 10(4), 261–268. 10.1016/j.ufug.2011.07.004 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kane, M. J., Bleckley, M. K., Conway, A. R. A., & Engle, R. W. (2001). A controlled-attention view of working-memory capacity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130(2), 169–183. 10.1037/0096-3445.130.2.169 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Kaplan, R. (2001). The nature of the view from home: Psychological benefits. Environment and Behavior, 33(4), 507–542. 10.1177/00139160121973115 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169–182. 10.1016/0272-4944(95)90001-2 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kaplan, S., & Berman, M. G. (2010). Directed attention as a common resource for executive functioning and self-regulation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(1), 43–57. 10.1177/1745691609356784 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Kassambara, A. (2021). Rstatix: Pipe-friendly framework for basic statistical tests (0.7.0) [R]. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/rstatix/index.html First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Koivisto, M., Jalava, E., Kuusisto, L., Railo, H., & Grassini, S. (2022). Top-down processing and nature connectedness predict psychological and physiological effects of nature. Environment and Behavior, 54(5), 917–945. 10.1177/00139165221107535 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Kuziek, J. W. (2017). Cognitive markers of attentional restoration while viewing natural and urban environments [Master Thesis]. University of Alberta. 10.7939/R3HD7P65P First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • La Pointe, L. B., & Engle, R. W. (1990). Simple and complex word spans as measures of working memory capacity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16(6), 1118–1133. 10.1037/0278-7393.16.6.1118 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lee, M. D., & Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2013). Bayesian cognitive modeling: A practical course. Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9781139087759 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Lemonaki, R., Xanthopoulou, D., Bardos, A. N., Karademas, E. C., & Simos, P. G. (2021). Burnout and job performance: A two-wave study on the mediating role of employee cognitive functioning. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 30(5), 692–704. 10.1080/1359432X.2021.1892818 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Li, H., Dong, W., Wang, Z., Chen, N., Wu, J., Wang, G., & Jiang, T. (2021). Effect of a virtual reality-based restorative environment on the emotional and cognitive recovery of individuals with mild-to-moderate anxiety and depression. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(17), Article 9053. 10.3390/ijerph18179053 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ly, A., Verhagen, J., & Wagenmakers, E. J. (2016). Harold Jeffreys’s default Bayes factor hypothesis tests: Explanation, extension, and application in psychology. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 72, 19–32. 10.1016/j.jmp.2015.06.004 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Mayer, F. S., Frantz, C. M., Bruehlman-Senecal, E., & Dolliver, K. (2009). Why is nature beneficial? The role of connectedness to nature. Environment and Behavior, 41(5), 607–643. 10.1177/0013916508319745 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • McAllister, E., Bhullar, N., & Schutte, N. S. (2017). Into the woods or a stroll in the park: How virtual contact with nature impacts positive and negative affect. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(7), 786. 10.3390/ijerph14070786 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • McCabe, D. P., Roediger, H. L., McDaniel, M. A., Balota, D. A., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2010). The relationship between working memory capacity and executive functioning: Evidence for a common executive attention construct. Neuropsychology, 24(2), 222–243. 10.1037/a0017619 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Meuwese, D., Dijkstra, K., Maas, J., & Koole, S. L. (2021). Beating the blues by viewing Green: Depressive symptoms predict greater restoration from stress and negative affect after viewing a nature video. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 75, Article 101594. 10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101594 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. 10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Moore, A. B., Clark, B. A., & Kane, M. J. (2008). Who shalt not kill? Individual differences in working memory capacity, executive control, and moral judgment. Psychological Science, 19(6), 549–557. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02122.x First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Morey, R. D., & Rouder, J. N. (2011). Bayes factor approaches for testing interval null hypotheses. Psychological Methods, 16(4), 406–419. 10.1037/a0024377 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Neilson, B. N., Craig, C. M., Curiel, R. Y., & Klein, M. I. (2021). Restoring attentional resources with nature: A replication study of Berto’s (2005) paradigm including commentary from Dr. Rita Berto. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 63(6), 1046–1060. 10.1177/0018720820909287 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Palanica, A., Lyons, A., Cooper, M., Lee, A., & Fossat, Y. (2019). A comparison of nature and urban environments on creative thinking across different levels of reality. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 63, 44–51. 10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.04.006 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Pasanen, T., Johnson, K., Lee, K., & Korpela, K. (2018). Can nature walks with psychological tasks improve mood, self-reported restoration, and sustained attention? Results from two experimental field studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 2057. 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02057 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Pilotti, M., Klein, E., Golem, D., Piepenbrink, E., & Kaplan, K. (2015). Is viewing a nature video after work restorative? Effects on blood pressure, task performance, and long-term memory. Environment and Behavior, 47(9), 947–969. 10.1177/0013916514533187 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Pimentel, D., & Pimentel, M. (2003). World population, food, natural resources, and survival. World Futures, 59(3–4), 145–167. 10.1080/02604020310124 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Pollard, M. A., & Courage, M. L. (2017). Working memory capacity predicts effective multitasking. Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 450–462. 10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.008 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Pritchard, A., Richardson, M., Sheffield, D., & McEwan, K. (2020). The relationship between nature connectedness and eudaimonic well-being: A meta-analysis. Journal of Happiness Studies: An Interdisciplinary Forum on Subjective Well-Being, 21(3), 1145–1167. 10.1007/s10902-019-00118-6 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Quek, F., Majeed, N., Kothari, M., Lua, V., Ong, H., & Hartanto, A. (2021). Brief mindfulness breathing exercises and working memory capacity: Findings from two experimental approaches. Brain Sciences, 11(2), Article 175. 10.3390/brainsci11020175 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • R Core Team (2020). R: A language and environment for statistical computing (3.6.3). R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org/ First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Redick, T. S., Broadway, J. M., Meier, M. E., Kuriakose, P. S., Unsworth, N., Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2012). Measuring working memory capacity with automated complex span tasks. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 28(3), 164–171. 10.1027/1015-5759/a000123 First citation in articleLink, Google Scholar

  • Revelle, W. (2021). psych: Procedures for psychological, psychometric, and personality research (2.1.6) [R]. Northwestern University. First citation in articleGoogle Scholar

  • Schertz, K. E., & Berman, M. G. (2019). Understanding nature and its cognitive benefits. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(5), 496–502. 10.1177/0963721419854100 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Stenfors, C. U. D., Van Hedger, S. C., Schertz, K. E., Meyer, F. A. C., Smith, K. E. L., Norman, G. J., Bourrier, S. C., Enns, J. T., Kardan, O., Jonides, J., & Berman, M. G. (2019). Positive effects of nature on cognitive performance across multiple experiments: Test order but not affect modulates the cognitive effects. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 1413. 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01413 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Stevenson, M. P., Dewhurst, R., Schilhab, T., & Bentsen, P. (2019). Cognitive restoration in children following exposure to nature: Evidence from the attention network task and mobile eye tracking. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 42. 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00042 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Storbeck, J., & Maswood, R. (2016). Happiness increases verbal and spatial working memory capacity where sadness does not: Emotion, working memory and executive control. Cognition and Emotion, 30(5), 925–938. 10.1080/02699931.2015.1034091 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Tennessen, C. M., & Cimprich, B. (1995). Views to nature: Effects on attention. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15(1), 77–85. 10.1016/0272-4944(95)90016-0 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Ulrich, R. S. (1983). Aesthetic and affective response to natural environment. In I. AltmanJ. F. Wohlwill (Eds.), Behavior and the natural environment (pp. 85–125). Springer. First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Unsworth, N., Redick, T. S., Heitz, R. P., Broadway, J. M., & Engle, R. W. (2009). Complex working memory span tasks and higher-order cognition: A latent-variable analysis of the relationship between processing and storage. Memory, 17(6), 635–654. 10.1080/09658210902998047 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Valtchanov, D., Barton, K. R., & Ellard, C. (2010). Restorative effects of virtual nature settings. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 13(5), 503–512. 10.1089/cyber.2009.0308 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Van Hedger, S. C., Nusbaum, H. C., Clohisy, L., Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., & Berman, M. G. (2019). Of cricket chirps and car horns: The effect of nature sounds on cognitive performance. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 26(2), 522–530. 10.3758/s13423-018-1539-1 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Vaughan, R. S., & Laborde, S. (2021). Attention, working-memory control, working-memory capacity, and sport performance: The moderating role of athletic expertise. European Journal of Sport Science, 21(2), 240–249. 10.1080/17461391.2020.1739143 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Weeland, J., Moens, M. A., Beute, F., Assink, M., Staaks, J. P. C., & Overbeek, G. (2019). A dose of nature: Two three-level meta-analyses of the beneficial effects of exposure to nature on children’s self-regulation. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 65, Article 101326. 10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.101326 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • White, M. P., Alcock, I., Grellier, J., Wheeler, B. W., Hartig, T., Warber, S. L., Bone, A., Depledge, M. H., & Fleming, L. E. (2019). Spending at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing. Scientific Reports, 9(1), Article 7730. 10.1038/s41598-019-44097-3 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • White, M. P., Pahl, S., Wheeler, B. W., Depledge, M. H., & Fleming, L. E. (2017). Natural environments and subjective wellbeing: Different types of exposure are associated with different aspects of wellbeing. Health & Place, 45, 77–84. 10.1016/j.healthplace.2017.03.008 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Wickham, H. (2016). ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for data analysis (2nd ed.). Springer International Publishing. 10.1007/978-3-319-24277-4 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar

  • Yang, H., Yang, S., & Isen, A. M. (2013). Positive affect improves working memory: Implications for controlled cognitive processing. Cognition & Emotion, 27(3), 474–482. 10.1080/02699931.2012.713325 First citation in articleCrossref Medline, Google Scholar

  • Yeung, Y.-Y., & Yu, C.-P. (2022). Cognitive-emotional benefits of weekly exposure to nature: A Taiwanese study on young adults. Sustainability, 14(13), Article 7828. 10.3390/su14137828 First citation in articleCrossref, Google Scholar