Introduction to the Special Section

In recent years the importance of positive experience has gained growing recognition by scholars who have paid increasing attention to an understanding of the components and determinants of one's well-being (Argyle, 1987; Kahneman, Diener, & Schwarz, 1999; Seligman, 2003; Seligman & Csikszenmihalyi, 2000; Sheldon & King, 2001; Veenhoven, 1993). This movement toward a positive psychology, addressing positive aspects of experience with a view to improving well-being at individual, communal, and social levels, started in the US at the end of the last century and is now spreading in Europe. Since the turn of the millennium, there had been two major European positive psychology conferences - one in Italy and one in the UK. The next Positive Psychology - 3rd European Conference will take place in Portugal, 3-6 July 2006 www.iep.uminho.pt/3ecpp). The third European Conference provides an opportunity to discuss and develop new theoretical and empirical perspectives, to foster networking among scholars, and to explore new applications of positive psychology. In this new century positive psychology has become one of the major approaches to the study of individual behavior and social processes. In this innovative and promising scientific field, a growing number of theoretical, empirical, and applied research projects are investigating positive psychological issues, such as subjective well-being, personal strengths, and resources and their implications for individual, social, and community development.

In the present Special Section of the European Psychologist we have gathered researchers all around Europe: From Italy, the UK, the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Finland, and Estonia in order to receive a broader view of how well-being and human development is investigated and conceptualized within a European context. There can be few more important topics than how to improve the quality of individual and community life, and it gives us great pleasure to share with our readers research conducted in the area of human development and well-being from a European perspective. The special focus of this issue is to present research that encompasses aspects of well-being across the whole life span. The contributions brought together here provide insights from studies covering the societal evolution from simple hunter-gatherer societies to our modern industrial society (Veenhoven), studies covering the whole of adulthood and the transition into old age (Caprara & Steca, as well as Staudinger & Kunzmann), studies linking childhood experiences to adult outcomes (Daukantaite & Bergman, as well as Feldt & colleagues), and studies focusing on everyday experiences (Della Fave & Massimini, as well as Schoon & colleagues). Moreover, two of the papers are conceptual (Staudinger & Kunzmann, Veenhoven), while the other five are empirical.

The authors have approached the study of well-being from different theoretical perspectives, using a variety of methods and applications in their conceptualization of the phenomenon. One of the pioneers in the advancement of positive psychology in the US, Ed Diener, has defined well-being in terms of subjective evaluations of one's life as a whole (Diener, 1984). The assessment of subjective well-being (SWB) involves the measurement of three partially separate components: A cognitive component consisting of an overall evaluation of one's life satisfaction, as well as the affective components of negative and positive affects, and the hedonic balance between pleasant and unpleasant experiences. There is currently an active discussion about the assessment of SWB as there are few external measures and most studies use self-reports of well-being and happiness. It has been argued that the components of SWB are moderately related to personality, and are, thus, relatively stable across situations and across the life span (Diener & Lucas, 1999). To assess the full range of quality of life in a society we need, however, a variety of indicators, involving measures of subjective, biological, economic, and social circumstances (Diener & Suh, 1999). These issues will be addressed in the following paragraphs, drawing on the contributions of the authors brought together for this volume.

There are, for example, substantial differences between nations in self-reported well-being, and one of the most replicable predictors of SWB of nations is economic wealth (Veenhoven, this issue). In his assessment of quality of life in a society, Veenhoven uses measures such as long life expectancy, availability of economic resources, and purchasing power per capita as measures of well-being. He uses trend data on life satisfaction and life expectancy from different nations to assess quality of life in modern society, as well as across human history. He argues that life is getting better as societies progress away from poverty, inequality, and oppression, and makes a case for further modernization, supporting reformist tendencies in advanced nations, which would involve providing development aid for less developed nations.

Differences in life satisfaction between countries are found by Schoon and colleagues (this issue) who compared self-reported levels of life satisfaction in three European countries characterized by different economic conditions and welfare provision to its citizens. Men and women in Estonia, for example, reported lower levels of life satisfaction than men and women in Finland or in the United Kingdom. The study highlights the importance of social roles, especially of intimate relationships and attachment to the labor market, as key factors associated with high levels of life satisfaction among men and women in the three countries. Schoon et al. argue that a basic condition for improving well-being and life satisfaction among citizens is to provide access to stable employment opportunities and to support marital ties. Where relationships have broken down, as in the case of divorce, employment opportunities in combination with day care provision are essential to enable lone parents in particular to take a paid job and provide for their family. To improve quality of life among parents living with a partner, the introduction of family-friendly practices at work is vital. Nordic countries such as Finland are currently leading the way with the provision of family-friendly policies, but these can only give full benefit if the needs of both men and women in a partnership are addressed.

Recommendations for interventions to promote individual development and social integration are provided by Delle Fave and Massimini (this issue) who have adopted quite a different approach in conceptualizing well-being. Using the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) originally developed by Csikszentmihalyi & Larson (1987) they assessed fluctuations in daily experiences of optimal experiences and apathy. Optimal experiences are characterized by ease of concentration, smooth flow of attention, and creative use of personal skills. They are distinct from peak experiences, transcendental states, or feelings of extreme happiness, and can be found in everyday activities. Optimal experiences are associated with complex and socially meaningful activities (such as work and study activities as well as organized sports) and can be used to foster the development of individual competences. Setting complex goals and striving to attain them supports positive development. Individuals, especially young people and adults at risk for deviance and marginalization, should be encouraged to follow their own path of skill development through the cultivation of activities and interests associated with lifelong and socially relevant meanings. A context rich in challenges and meaningful opportunities can provide individuals with more chances for optimal experiences. Delle Fave and Massimini argue that work conditions could be widely improved to provide opportunities for concentration, control, engagement, and personal initiative. However, since this is not always feasible, they support the promotion of life satisfaction through support of structure, exploration, and meaning in leisure.

Approaching the phenomenon of well-being from a lifespan perspective Staudinger and Kunzmann (this issue) introduce a differentiation of at least two types of positive development: Adjustment and personality growth. Positive adjustment refers to the adjustment to given societal circumstances (i.e., rules, norms, and societal expectations) and involves self-regulatory processes that help us to maintain and regain our normal level of subjective well-being in the face of threats and challenges. It describes the normative trajectory of positive development through effective functioning in society. Personality growth, on the other hand, refers to the striving toward wisdom, and the rare instances of transcending given societal circumstances. Growth encompasses having a purpose in life, to move beyond the status quo, and to show greater openness to experiences. Interventions aiming to promote personality growth might benefit from this distinction between adjustment and growth, especially as there are different age trajectories associated with these two types of development. While normative adjustment increases with age, indicators of personality growth show age-related stability or even decline. For the growth trajectory to show stability or further increase with age it takes a very special constellation of person and contextual factors. Furthermore, the goal system of the developing person plays an important part in the unfolding of the growth trajectory.

Reconsidering the distinctive features of SWB, Caprara and Steca (this issue) have developed a conceptual model aimed at a better understanding of the interplay of affects, cognitions, and actions involved in positive adaptation. Drawing on Bandura's concept of affective and social self-efficacy, they argue that the more people believe they are capable of handling their interpersonal and social relations successfully, the more they will perform effectively in diverse life situations. They extended the cognitive component of the SWB concept to include not only life satisfaction, but also self-esteem and optimism. Using latent variable modeling they refer to the common latent dimension of these three variables as “positive thinking,” which is understood to be linked to affective and social self-regulatory efficacies, and to happiness. Applying their model in a study of participants aged 20-90 years they were able to show that subjective well-being is influenced by perceived self-efficacy for affect regulation and one's management of social relationships. Although women are better than men in expressing their positive emotions and in regulating their negative emotional states, women experience more negative emotions and fewer feelings of self-acceptance and self-worth than men. The study emphasizes the role of positive affect in shaping human functioning and adaptation, in particular the role of social relationships.

Focusing in particular on the role of early optimism in shaping adult SWB, Daukantaite and Bergman (this issue) also highlight the role of positive affect in shaping long-term developmental outcomes. Extending the cognitive-affective model developed by Chang (2002), they suggest that affectivity serves as a mediator between optimism and life satisfaction. Using longitudinal data they could demonstrate that optimism in adolescence influences optimism in middle age, which in turn affects global life satisfaction both directly and indirectly via positive and negative affect. Thus, mood and affect balance are one of the main sources that individuals use for judging their life.

Another study linking childhood experiences to adult adjustment emphasizes the importance of childhood family relationships for developing a sense of coherence (SOC). The paper by Feldt and colleagues draws on the concept of SOC, which was originally developed by Antonovsky (1987) as a counterpoint to the dominant pathogenic view of life, offering a salutogenic approach to the study of health and well-being. Drawing on longitudinal data they could show that child-centered parenting and a stable career line were directly associated with SOC. Child-centered parenting refers to an accepting and emotionally warm parental attitude toward the child combined with inductive guidance and supervision. Yet, not only experiences in the family environment, but also the direct experience of unemployment during the transition into adulthood, as well as overall job insecurity and gloomy future prospects facing Finland during a deep economic recession between 1991 and 1994 were linked to adult SOC.

Themes cutting across the papers concern issues related to antecedents, covariates, and outcomes of SWB, as well as describing stability and change of well-being across the life span. The studies presented here address questions about positive adaptation and growth in adulthood and old age (Staudinger & Kunzmann), perceived self-efficacy at different age groups ranging from 20- to 90-year-olds (Caprara & Steca), life satisfaction in middle age among different countries (Schoon et al.), quality of life between nations (Veenhoven), optimal experiences among adolescents, students, and adults (Delle Fave & Massimini), as well as longitudinal studies linking childhood experiences to adult outcomes (Daukantaite & Bergman, Feldt et al.).

Although the concepts used in these studies differ widely in their theoretical orientation ranging from population-based studies to optimal experiences in everyday activities, a number of common themes have emerged. First of all, the continuity of personality characteristics across the life span has been asserted by Caprara and Steca in terms of self-efficacy, by Staudinger and Kunzmann in terms of adaptation and growth, and by Daukantaite and Bergman in terms of optimism. In addition, the importance of positive experiences in shaping human development and well-being was addressed by many (Caprara & Steca; Daukantaite & Bergman; Delle Fave & Massimini; Feldt et al., Staudinger & Kunzmann). The consistent relation between personality and well-being provides valuable evidence regarding the stability and validity of well-being constructs. Subjective evaluations reflect characteristic emotional styles that may be, to some degree, inherited. These ingrained responses to the environment appear early in life, remain stable in adulthood, and occur across situations and domains - and across different countries.

Personality is, however, not the only factor influencing well-being. A variety of contextual and situational factors can influence how satisfied people are with their lives. Positive experiences are associated with everyday activities, such as work and study, and their recognition and advancement can be used to foster the development of individual competences and skills (Delle Fave & Massimini). The findings presented here have, furthermore, highlighted the importance of the early home environment in influencing personality, as well as the vital role of close relationships in shaping subjective evaluations of one's life and feelings of coherence (Caprara & Steca; Feld et al., Schoon et al.). Schoon and colleagues stress the importance of marital relationship to life satisfaction, while Caprara and Steca demonstrate the importance of social self-regulatory efficacy in shaping SWB, and Feldt and colleagues point out the importance of child-centered parenting to an adult sense of coherence. The experience and expression of positive emotions, as well as close and intimate relationships with others represent not only one of the most important life goals, it also influences human functioning and positive adaptation. The meaning of goal setting to SWB was addressed in many papers such as those by Daukantaite and Bergman, Caprara and Steca, Della Fave and Massimini, and Staudinger and Kunzmann.

There was also consistent evidence of significant associations between well-being and social-economic indicators. Modernization and economic development has been found to be associated with raised levels of life satisfaction and quality of life in a society (Veenhoven, Schoon et al.). The findings underline the role of work and employment in shaping positive functioning. Not only is the experience of unstable or interrupted employment associated with decreased levels of well-being (Feldt et al., Schoon et al.), it has also been argued that a context rich in challenges and meaningful opportunities can provide individuals more chances for optimal experiences, which includes the domain of work and the need for improved work conditions (Delle Fave & Massimini).

What remains to be done in the area of well-being is the refinement and development of key concepts as well as consistent use of terminology. In this Special Section Staudinger and Kunzmann conceptualized well-being as growth during human development and adjustment to the given and making most of it; Veenhoven used the concept of quality of life; Feldt et al. used the concept of sense of coherence; Della Fave and Massimini used optimal experience; Daukantaite and Bergman conceptualized well-being as optimism, positive attitude toward the future, and subjective well-being; Schoon et al. used the concept of life satisfaction; and finally Caprara and Steca used life satisfaction, self esteem, and optimism. To help meet the needs of the field of positive psychology a drive toward a better integrated conceptual picture would be one future challenge for the field. Second, we need to measure the same concepts. There is also room for methodological advancement. All the papers used either a conceptual or variable oriented approach. Many papers used multivariate analyses including path analyses, SEM models (Caprara & Steca, Feldt et al., Daukantaite & Bergman), or analyses of variance (Della Fave & Massimini, Schoon et al.). Although a number of studies could draw on longitudinal data for their analysis, none of the papers used a cross-lagged analysis method, in which the earlier level of the same well-being construct could be controlled. One of the major tasks for the future is to ensure longitudinal assessment of relevant constructs over time, and the inclusion of measures of well-being in longitudinal studies. Another challenge for methodological development would be to add a person-oriented view to human development and well-being. Finally, one of the future challenges is to develop interventions based on positive concepts to increase people's well-being. The recognition of the human potential for resilience and a call for psychologists to pay greater attention to this capacity rather than simply focus on psychopathology would be another future challenge for positive psychology.

It is our pleasure to notice that interest in positive well-being rather than negative aspects has finally reached researchers around Europe. Now is, therefore, a good time to summarize the current state of the field of research conducted in positive psychology in Europe. It was our pleasure to notice that the field of positive well-being seems to flourish all over Europe. Positive psychology has the potential to offer a lot to psychologists. It emerged as a new field aiming to also have practical implications, and to promote the well-being of individuals and communities. The assumption that even problematic aspects of individual experience may be better addressed by acknowledging, strengthening, and promoting virtues, strengths, and potentials provides a new approach, moving away from the focus on weaknesses and problems. Any generalizations and claims of practical implications have to be supported by solid empirical evidence consistent with theoretical and conceptual reasoning about the nature of well-being and human development.

Finally, we would like to thank all authors and reviewers for their combined efforts to make this special issue worthwhile reading and hopefully, an inspiration for future research and human flourishing.