Introduction
Long-Term Effects of Universal School-Based Interventions
Intervention Components and Follow-Up Effects
Method
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Literature Search
Data Extraction
Calculation and Analyses of Effect Sizes
Publication Bias
Analyses
Results
Descriptive Characteristics
Overall Effect Sizes at Follow-Up
Domains | Number of effect sizes (k) | Effect sizes | 95% CI |
---|---|---|---|
Intrapersonal | 128 | .19 | .08; .30 |
Resilience | 10 | .14 | − .12; .39 |
Self-esteem | 32 | .23 | .08; .37 |
Self-regulation | 18 | .13 | .05; .20 |
Wellbeing | 33 | .22 | .02; .43 |
Internalizing problems | 34 | .08 | .01; .14 |
Interpersonal | 155 | .16 | .09; .23 |
Sexual health | 46 | .10 | .03; .16 |
Social competence | 22 | .11 | .03; .19 |
Aggression | 58 | .19 | .06; .32 |
Bullying | 21 | .14 | − .04; .32 |
Publication Bias
Intervention Components Related to Intervention Effects at Follow-Up
Descriptive Analyses
Intrapersonal Domain
Component | Intrapersonal | Resilience | Self-esteem | Self-regulation | Wellbeing | Internalizing | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
#ES | ES | B | #ES | ES | B | #ES | ES | B | #ES | ES | B | #ES | ES | B | #ES | ES | B | ||
Content components | |||||||||||||||||||
Emotion regulation | Yes | 86 | .18 | − .03 | 8 | – | – | 17 | .16 | − .17 | 18 | – | – | 21 | .33 | .23 | 21 | .08 | .00 |
No | 42 | .21 | 2 | 15 | .33 | 0 | 12 | .10 | 13 | .07 | |||||||||
Assertiveness | Yes | 52 | .21 | .04 | 8 | – | – | 11 | .25 | .03 | 7 | .12 | − .02 | 9 | .14 | − .11 | 15 | .05 | − .04 |
No | 76 | .18 | 2 | 21 | .22 | 11 | .13 | 24 | .25 | 19 | .09 | ||||||||
Self-efficacy | Yes | 45 | .26 | .10 | 7 | .28 | .39† | 17 | .27 | .07 | 5 | .18 | .09 | 5 | .06 | − .18 | 10 | .11 | .05 |
No | 83 | .16 | 3 | − .11 | 15 | .20 | 13 | .09 | 28 | .25 | 24 | .06 | |||||||
Self-control | Yes | 125 | .23 | .04 | 0 | – | – | 2 | – | – | 1 | – | – | 0 | – | – | 0 | – | – |
No | 3 | .19 | 10 | 30 | 17 | 33 | 34 | ||||||||||||
Insight building | Yes | 48 | .18 | − .02 | 6 | .26 | .27 | 8 | .26 | .05 | 11 | .19 | .16* | 15 | .25 | .05 | 9 | .12 | .06 |
No | 80 | .20 | 4 | − .01 | 24 | .21 | 7 | .03 | 18 | .20 | 25 | .06 | |||||||
Cognitive coping | Yes | 57 | .14 | − .07 | 2 | – | – | 9 | .21 | − .03 | 4 | .05 | − .09 | 18 | .17 | − .10 | 22 | .08 | − .00 |
No | 71 | .21 | 8 | 23 | .24 | 14 | .14 | 15 | .27 | 12 | .08 | ||||||||
Relaxation | Yes | 28 | .13 | − .08 | 2 | – | – | 4 | .15 | − .09 | 3 | .12 | − .01 | 5 | .10 | − .16 | 13 | .09 | .03 |
No | 100 | .21 | 8 | 28 | .24 | 15 | .13 | 28 | .26 | 21 | .07 | ||||||||
Social skills | Yes | 80 | .22 | .06 | 8 | – | – | 16 | .26 | .07 | 17 | – | – | 18 | .38 | .26 | 20 | .08 | .00 |
No | 48 | .15 | 2 | 16 | .19 | 1 | 15 | .12 | 14 | .08 | |||||||||
Problem solving | Yes | 31 | .13 | − .08 | 6 | .26 | .27 | 7 | .30 | .10 | 5 | .03 | − .14* | 2 | – | – | 11 | .03 | − .08 |
No | 97 | .21 | 4 | − .01 | 25 | .21 | 13 | .17 | 31 | 23 | .11 | ||||||||
Peer resistance | Yes | 5 | .01 | − .20 | 0 | – | – | 1 | – | – | 2 | – | – | 0 | – | – | 2 | – | – |
No | 123 | .21 | 10 | 31 | 16 | 33 | 32 | ||||||||||||
Instructional components | |||||||||||||||||||
Practice | Yes | 88 | .21 | .05 | 10 | – | – | 18 | .27 | .11 | 15 | .16 | .13† | 23 | .17 | − .15 | 21 | .10 | .05 |
No | 40 | .16 | 0 | 14 | .06 | 3 | .03 | 10 | .32 | 13 | .05 | ||||||||
Modeling | Yes | 37 | .15 | − .06 | 6 | .26 | .27 | 11 | .13 | − .15 | 4 | .16 | .04 | 6 | .23 | .01 | 10 | .11 | .04 |
No | 91 | .21 | 4 | − .01 | 21 | .29 | 14 | .11 | 27 | .22 | 24 | .07 | |||||||
Discussion | Yes | 95 | .21 | .06 | 9 | – | – | 27 | .23 | .01 | 14 | .16 | .14† | 23 | .17 | − .14 | 21 | .13 | .13* |
No | 33 | .15 | 1 | 5 | .22 | 4 | .03 | 10 | .31 | 13 | − .00 | ||||||||
Goal setting | Yes | 25 | .21 | .03 | 6 | .26 | .27 | 8 | .23 | .00 | 2 | – | – | 8 | .24 | .02 | 1 | – | – |
No | 103 | .19 | 4 | − .01 | 24 | .23 | 16 | 25 | .22 | 33 | |||||||||
(Self-)monitoring | Yes | 31 | .24 | .06 | 1 | – | – | 6 | .21 | − .02 | 2 | – | – | 12 | .21 | − .01 | 9 | .14 | .08 |
No | 97 | .18 | 9 | 26 | .23 | 16 | 21 | .22 | 25 | .06 | |||||||||
Multimedia | Yes | 56 | .22 | .05 | 2 | – | – | 17 | .32 | .19 | 10 | .19 | .15* | 17 | .16 | − .11 | 11 | .14 | .11† |
No | 72 | .17 | 8 | .11 | .00 | 15 | .13 | 8 | .04 | 16 | .27 | 23 | .04 | ||||||
Homework | Yes | 38 | .10 | − .12 | 3 | .10 | 4 | .19 | − .05 | 5 | .04 | − .12 | 8 | .08 | − .20 | 17 | .04 | − .07 | |
No | 90 | .23 | 7 | 28 | .24 | 13 | .16 | 25 | .28 | 17 | .11 | ||||||||
Didactic instruction | Yes | 85 | .22 | .07 | 3 | − .00 | − .21 | 26 | .19 | − .13 | 6 | .13 | .00 | 25 | .28 | .23 | 23 | .08 | .02 |
No | 43 | .15 | 7 | .21 | 6 | .32 | 12 | .13 | 8 | .05 | 11 | .07 | |||||||
Structural components | |||||||||||||||||||
Parental involvement | Yes | 6 | .03 | − .18 | 0 | – | – | 0 | – | – | 2 | – | – | 0 | – | – | 4 | − .02 | − .11 |
No | 122 | .21 | 10 | 32 | 16 | 33 | 30 | .09 | |||||||||||
Whole school involved | Yes | 17 | .36 | .19 | 0 | – | – | 4 | .37 | .16 | 2 | – | – | 9 | .78 | .67** | 2 | – | – |
No | 107 | .17 | 10 | 28 | .22 | 16 | 24 | .11 | 30 | ||||||||||
Individual part | Yes | 27 | .10 | − .14 | 0 | – | – | 8 | .15 | − .10 | 5 | .14 | .02 | 7 | .07 | − .20 | 7 | .04 | − .04 |
No | 101 | .23 | 10 | 24 | .25 | 13 | .12 | 26 | .27 | 27 | .09 | ||||||||
Number of sessions | I | .21 | .04 | .13 | .22 | .23 | − .01 | .11 | .04 | .23 | .11 | .09 | .04 | ||||||
Number of components | I | .19 | − .01 | .07 | .16 | .23 | .00 | .11 | .04 | .22 | − .00 | .08 | .01 |
Interpersonal Domain
Component | Interpersonal | Sexual health | Social competence | Aggression | Bullying | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
#ES | ES | B | #ES | ES | B | #ES | ES | B | #ES | ES | B | #ES | ES | B | ||
Content components | ||||||||||||||||
Emotion regulation | Yes | 72 | .23 | .14* | 8 | .13 | .05 | 18 | .14 | .08 | 30 | .28 | .20 | 8 | .33 | .31† |
No | 83 | .09 | 38 | .09 | 4 | .06 | 28 | .08 | 13 | .02 | ||||||
Assertiveness | Yes | 48 | .10 | − .08 | 17 | .15 | .11† | 14 | .05 | − .11† | 13 | .05 | − .21 | 4 | − .03 | − .19 |
No | 107 | .18 | 29 | .04 | 8 | .16 | 45 | .25 | 17 | .16 | ||||||
Self-efficacy | Yes | 24 | .21 | .07 | 7 | .26 | .20** | 9 | .11 | − .00 | 4 | .31 | .14 | 4 | .21 | .09 |
No | 131 | .14 | 39 | .06 | 13 | .11 | 54 | .18 | 17 | .12 | ||||||
Self-control | Yes | 25 | .13 | − .03 | 5 | .19 | .11 | 0 | – | – | 20 | .10 | − .10 | 0 | – | – |
No | 130 | .16 | 41 | .08 | 22 | 38 | .20 | 21 | ||||||||
Insight building | Yes | 57 | .19 | .05 | 7 | .26 | .20** | 9 | .13 | .03 | 30 | .13 | − .09 | 4 | .06 | − .11 |
No | 98 | .14 | 39 | .06 | 13 | .10 | 28 | .22 | 17 | .17 | ||||||
Cognitive coping | Yes | 52 | .12 | − .06 | 23 | .03 | − .09 | 9 | .14 | .04 | 11 | .13 | − .09 | 3 | − .10 | − .30 |
No | 103 | .17 | 23 | .12 | 13 | .09 | 47 | .22 | 18 | .20 | ||||||
Relaxation | Yes | 15 | .22 | .07 | 5 | .19 | .11 | 3 | .02 | − .11 | 6 | .34 | .18 | 1 | – | – |
No | 140 | .15 | 41 | .08 | 19 | .13 | 52 | .16 | 20 | |||||||
Social skills | Yes | 74 | .20 | .11 | 9 | .14 | .06 | 19 | .11 | − .02 | 28 | .23 | .14 | 10 | .23 | .25 |
No | 81 | .09 | 37 | .08 | 3 | .13 | 30 | .09 | 11 | − .01 | ||||||
Problem solving | Yes | 81 | .16 | − .00 | 29 | .10 | .00 | 9 | .09 | − .04 | 36 | .19 | .00 | 7 | .12 | − .03 |
No | 74 | .16 | 17 | .10 | 13 | .13 | 22 | .19 | 14 | .15 | ||||||
Peer resistance | Yes | 25 | .14 | − .02 | 1 | – | – | 2 | – | – | 22 | .18 | − .01 | 0 | − | – |
No | 130 | .16 | 45 | 20 | 36 | .19 | 21 | |||||||||
Instructional components | ||||||||||||||||
Practice | Yes | 103 | .18 | .06 | 17 | .10 | − .01 | 16 | .13 | .05 | 53 | .20 | .05 | 9 | .22 | .11 |
No | 52 | .12 | 29 | .11 | 6 | .08 | 5 | .15 | 12 | .11 | ||||||
Modeling | Yes | 39 | .17 | .01 | 11 | .18 | .13* | 11 | .13 | .03 | 14 | .15 | − .06 | 2 | – | – |
No | 116 | .15 | 35 | .05 | 11 | .10 | 44 | .21 | 19 | |||||||
Discussion | Yes | 99 | .15 | − .02 | 21 | .10 | − .01 | 16 | .06 | − .12† | 47 | .18 | − .02 | 8 | .22 | .11 |
No | 56 | .17 | 25 | .10 | 6 | .18 | 11 | .20 | 13 | .11 | ||||||
Goal setting | Yes | 22 | .27 | .14 | 7 | .26 | .20** | 5 | .14 | .04 | 5 | .33 | .16 | 0 | – | – |
No | 133 | .13 | 39 | .06 | 17 | .11 | 53 | .17 | 21 | |||||||
(Self-)monitoring | Yes | 14 | .13 | − .03 | 0 | – | – | 5 | .02 | − .11 | 4 | .11 | − .09 | 0 | – | – |
No | 141 | .16 | 46 | 17 | .13 | 54 | .20 | 21 | ||||||||
Multimedia | Yes | 66 | .17 | .03 | 17 | .13 | .09 | 5 | .10 | − .02 | 33 | .20 | .01 | 4 | .21 | .09 |
No | 89 | .15 | 29 | .04 | 17 | .12 | 25 | .18 | 17 | .12 | ||||||
Homework | Yes | 17 | .29 | .15 | 0 | – | – | 4 | .24 | .15 | 11 | .26 | .10 | 1 | – | – |
No | 138 | .14 | 46 | 18 | .09 | 47 | .16 | 20 | ||||||||
Didactic instruction | Yes | 98 | .17 | .04 | 43 | .10 | .03 | 11 | .16 | .11 | 23 | .20 | .02 | 15 | .17 | .17 |
No | 57 | .13 | 3 | .07 | 11 | .05 | 35 | .18 | 6 | .01 | ||||||
Structural components | ||||||||||||||||
Parental involvement | Yes | 66 | .07 | − .12 | 19 | .03 | − .09 | 5 | .08 | − .04 | 31 | .10 | − .15 | 11 | − .01 | − .30† |
No | 89 | .19 | 27 | .12 | 17 | 13 | 27 | .25 | 10 | .29 | ||||||
Whole school involved | Yes | 54 | .17 | .00 | 27 | .08 | − .04 | 5 | .08 | − .04 | 7 | .25 | .05 | 10 | .16 | .05 |
No | 99 | .17 | 19 | .12 | 17 | .13 | 49 | .20 | 11 | .11 | ||||||
Individual part | Yes | 22 | .04 | − .15† | 3 | .07 | − .03 | 5 | .06 | − .07 | 3 | − .04 | − .28 | 11 | .02 | − .28 |
No | 133 | .19 | 43 | .10 | 17 | .13 | 55 | .23 | 10 | .30 | ||||||
Number of sessions | I | .17 | .02 | .09 | − .03 | .10 | .02 | .23 | − .00 | .23 | .08 | |||||
Number of components | I | .16 | .03 | .10 | .03 | .12 | − .02 | .19 | − .00 | .16 | .03 |