The ESC guidelines for the management of AF suggest that dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT, i.e. acetylsalicylic acid + P2Y
12 inhibitor) is indicated in patients using oral anticoagulation in whom a PCI is performed. However, triple therapy (DAPT plus oral anticoagulation) is associated with a significantly increased risk of major bleeding. For example, the WOEST trial demonstrated that an approach
without acetylsalicylic acid—in that trial a vitamin K antagonist (VKA) combined with clopidogrel significantly reduces bleeding risk during follow-up (19% for patients with dual therapy compared to 44% for those with triple therapy) [
4]. However, when this trial was conducted, DOACs had not yet been introduced in the clinical setting. The effectiveness and safety of anticoagulation with the use of a DOAC (rivaroxaban) combined with acetylsalicylic acid or DAPT was compared with VKAs in the PIONEER AF-PCI study [
5]. The study’s main conclusion was that the administration of either low-dose rivaroxaban (15 mg o.d.) plus a P2Y
12 inhibitor for 12 months or very-low-dose rivaroxaban (2.5 mg b.i. d.) plus DAPT for 1, 6, or 12 months was associated with a lower rate of clinically significant bleeding compared to standard therapy with a VKA (16.8% vs 18.0% vs 26.7%, respectively) plus DAPT for 1, 6, or 12 months [
5]. Although the study was not powered to assess the outcomes of survival, myocardial infarction and stroke, no difference was observed in the incidence of these events among the three groups. Notably, the occurrence of stroke was very low (6.5% vs 5.6% vs 6.0%, respectively), although this is partly explained by the exclusion of patients with a history of stroke or transient ischaemic attack. In the original ROCKET AF trial the lower dose of rivaroxaban (15 mg o.d.) was used only in patients with moderate kidney disease (creatinine clearance 30–49 ml/min) [
6,
7]. However, when observing registry data, it appears that the 15-mg dose is often prescribed in clinical practice, even in those patients with normal kidney function [
8]. It is unclear why this choice is made by treating physicians, but it is likely due to a perceived feeling or the actual presence of risk factors for bleeding, including advanced age and relevant co-morbidities. Importantly, one registry showed that the use of reduced doses of apixaban (2.5 mg b.i. d.) or rivaroxaban (15 mg o.d.) was associated with an increased risk of death, compared to warfarin, emphasising the need to prescribe the correct dosage for each DOAC [
9]. The RE-DUAL PCI study randomised 2725 patients with AF and a PCI to either triple therapy (dabigatran 110 or 150 mg b.i. d., acetylsalicylic acid and warfarin) or dual therapy consisting of dabigatran 110 or 150 mg b.i. d. plus a P2Y
12 inhibitor (clopidogrel or ticagrelor) and no acetylsalicylic acid. Dual therapy was non-inferior to triple therapy with respect to the risk of thromboembolic events [
10]. Also, in the AUGUSTUS trial of patients with AF undergoing a PCI, the combination of a P2Y
12 inhibitor with full-dose apixaban resulted in less bleeding and fewer hospitalisations without significant differences in the incidence of ischaemic events compared to regimens that included a VKA, acetylsalicylic acid, or both [
11]. Finally, these findings are also confirmed in the edoxaban-based versus VKA-based antithrombotic regimen after successful coronary stenting in patients with AF (ENTRUST-AF PCI) for the use of edoxaban as compared with VKA [
12]. A recent meta-analysis of the aforementioned studies confirmed the finding that dual therapy with a DOAC and P2Y
12 inhibitor led to a reduction in major and intracranial bleedings. However, a higher risk of cardiac (mainly stent-related) ischaemic occurrences was observed [
13]. Therefore in the case of a high ischaemic risk (e.g. acute clinical presentation, or certain difficult anatomical or procedural features), as recommended by the ESC revascularisation guidelines, triple therapy may be continued for a longer period of time (6 months) [
14]. A longer duration of triple therapy is also often required in patients with acute coronary syndromes; however, these patients were beyond the scope of this article, and detailed recommendations may be found in the respective ESC guidelines [
15,
16]. For example, for a patient admitted with a non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome and a low to intermediate bleeding risk (as assessed by the HAS-BLED score) triple therapy is recommended for 6 months. In the case of a high bleeding risk the period of triple therapy is reduced to 4 weeks [
15].