Skip to main content
Mijn bibliotheek
Shop
Nieuws Boeken Tijdschriften E-learning Web-tv Video Audio
Tips voor Mijn BSL
UITGEBREID ZOEKEN
Inloggen
Top
Cognitive Therapy and Research
Gepubliceerd in: Cognitive Therapy and Research 6/2009

01-12-2009 | Original Article

Cognitive Processes in Cognitive and Pharmacological Therapies

Auteur: Warren W. Tryon

Gepubliceerd in: Cognitive Therapy and Research | Uitgave 6/2009

Log in om toegang te krijgen
share
DELEN

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

  • Optie A:
    Klik op de rechtermuisknop op de link en selecteer de optie “linkadres kopiëren”
  • Optie B:
    Deel de link per e-mail
    Link delen
publish
Publiceer nu

Abstract

There is increasing interest in understanding the mechanisms by which effective therapies work. The cognitive neuroscience perspective presented here adds to our mechanism understanding of how empirically supported treatments for anxiety and depression work and it informs the cognitive specificity hypothesis. Basic neuroscience findings regarding synaptic transmission and experience-dependent plasticity are presented because they form the basis of learning and memory and enable a better understanding of the effects of neuroleptic drugs on the limbic system. Principles of connectionist modeling are discussed because they provide additional mechanism information. A generalization of the S-O-R model into a network model is presented. A connectionist explanation of how networks transform perceptions into cognitions is provided. This information is used to better understand how placebos and nocebos work. Clinical applications are made to PTSD, anxiety, depression, and their empirically supported treatments. The cognitive specificity hypothesis is revisited from this connectionist cognitive neuroscience perspective. Mechanism information concerning the effects of drugs on cognition, depth of cognitive change, and durability of treatment effects is presented. Corollaries and conclusions follow.
vorige artikel Tendencies Toward Mania and Tendencies Toward Depression Have Distinct Motivational, Affective, and Cognitive Correlates
volgende artikel Early Maladaptive Schemas and Adaptive/Maladaptive Styles of Humor
Voetnoten
1
The term cognitive therapies is used here in a general way to refer to cognitive therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, rational emotive behavioral therapy, and all other therapies that aim to change the way people think.
 
2
Whereas, Pavlov can correctly be described as a S-R theorist, Skinner was a R-S theorist because he taught that behaviors were emitted and then shaped by reinforcing stimuli that followed as consequences. Discriminative stimuli set the occasion for the emission of behavior but did not elicit it as Pavlov claimed. The difference between emitted and elicited behavior is the distinction between operant and respondent conditioning.
 
3
Connectionist models are simple first approximations of real neural systems. This makes their ability to simulate effectively many phenomena covered by introductory psychology textbooks all the more impressive. Their success demonstrates the utility of implementing just a few basic properties of real neural networks. Additional achievements can be expected as connectionist models become more biologically realistic.
 
4
It may or may not be coincidental that the hippocampus is a three-layered network.
 
5
A network with three layers of processing nodes can also be described as a two-layer network because it contains two layers of connections. This emphasis is warranted because it is largely through changes in connection weights, via mathematically stated learning rules, that connectionist models acquire their functional characteristics.
 
Literatuur
Arbib, M. A. (Ed.). (2002). The handbook of brain theory and neural networks (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Bear, M. F., Connors, B. W., & Paradiso, M. A. (2007). Neuroscience: Exploring the brain (3rd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
Bechtel, W., & Abrahamsen, A. (2002). Connectionism and the mind: An introduction to parallel processing in networks (2nd ed.). Blackwell: Cambridge.
Beeson, A., Privat, A. M., Eschalier, A., & Fialip, J. (1999). Dopaminergic and opioidergic mediations of tricyclic antidepressants in the learned helpless paradigm. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 64(3), 541–548. doi:10.​1016/​S0091-3057(99)00102-1.CrossRef
Best, J. B. (1999). Cognitive psychology (25th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole—Wadsworth.
Bower, G. H., & Cohen, P. R. (1982). Emotional influences in memory and thinking: Data and theory. In M. S. Clark & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), Affect and cognition (pp. 241–331). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bradford, D., Stroup, S., & Liberman, J. (2002). Pharmacological treatments for schizophrenia. In P. E. Nathan & J. M. Gorman (Eds.), Treatments that work (2nd ed., pp. 169–199). New York: Oxford University Press.
Butler, A. C., & Beck, A. T. (1995). Cognitive therapy for depression. Clinical Psychologist, 48, 3–5.
Coffman, S. J., Martell, C. R., Dimidjian, S., Gallop, R., & Hollon, S. D. (2007). Extreme nonresponse in cognitive therapy: Can behavioral activation succeed where cognitive therapy fails? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 531–541. doi:10.​1037/​0022-006X.​75.​4.​531.PubMedCrossRef
Commons, M. L., Grossberg, S., & Staddon, J. E. R. (1991). Neural network models of conditioning and action. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Dawson, M. R. W. (2004). Minds and machines: Connectionism and psychological modeling. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Dawson, M. R. W. (2005). Connectionism: A hands-on approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell.CrossRef
Dimidjiam, S., Hollon, S. D., Dobson, K. S., Schmaling, K. B., Kohlenberg, R. J., Addis, M. E., et al. (2006). Randomized trial of behavioral activation, cognitive therapy, and antidepressant medication in the acute treatment of adults with major depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 658–670. doi:10.​1037/​0022-006X.​74.​4.​658.CrossRef
Donahoe, J. W. (1997). The necessity of neural networks. In G. E. Stelmach & P. A. Vroon (Series Eds.) & J. W. Donahoe & V. P. Dorsel (Vol. Eds.), Advances in psychology: Vol. 121, Neural-network models of cognition: Biobehavioral foundations (pp. 1–19). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Draycott, S., & Dabbs, A. (1998). Cognitive dissonance 2: A theoretical grounding of motivational interviewing. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 355–364.PubMed
Edelman, G. M. (1987). Neural Darwinism: The theory of neuronal group selection. New York: Basic Books.
Finkel, L. H., & Sajda, P. (1994). Constructing visual perception: Artificial vision systems, built from neural networks, are revealing the rules of human visual processing. American Scientist, 82, 224–237.
Fuente-Fernandez, R., Ruth, T. J., Sossi, V., Schulzer, M., Calne, D. B., & Stoessl, A. J. (2001). Expectation and dopamine release: Mechanism of the placebo effect in Parkinson’s disease. Science, 293, 1164–1166. doi:10.​1126/​science.​1060937.PubMedCrossRef
Garratt, G., Ingram, R. E., Rand, K. L., & Sawalani, G. (2007). Cognitive processes in cognitive therapy: Evaluation of the mechanisms of change in the treatment of depression. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 14, 224–239. doi:10.​1111/​j.​1468-2850.​2007.​00081.​x.CrossRef
Garris, P. A., Kilpatrick, M., Bunin, M. A., Michael, D., Walker, Q. D., & Wightman, R. M. (1999). Dissociation of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens from intracranial self-stimulation. Nature, 398(6722), 67–69. doi:10.​1038/​18019.PubMedCrossRef
Goela, V., Pullara, S. D., & Grafman, J. (2001). A computational model of frontal lobe dysfunction: Working memory and the tower of Hanoi task. Cognitive Science, 25, 287–313.CrossRef
Goldapple, K., Segal, Z., Garson, C., Lau, M., Bieling, P., Kennedy, S., et al. (2004). Modulation of cortical-limbic pathways in major depression: Treatment-specific effects of cognitive behavior therapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 34–41. doi:10.​1001/​archpsyc.​61.​1.​34.PubMedCrossRef
Grossberg, S., & Levine, D. S. (1987). Neural dynamics of attentionally modulated Pavlovian conditioning: blocking, interstimulus interval, and secondary reinforcement. Applied Optics, 26, 5015–5030. doi:10.​1364/​AO.​26.​005015.CrossRef
Grossberg, S., & Schmajuk, N. A. (1987). Neural dynamics of attentionally modulated Pavlovian conditioning: Conditioned reinforcement, inhibition, and opponent processing. Psychobiology, 15, 195–240.
Hinton, G. E., Plaut, D. C., & Shallice, T. (1993). Simulating brain damage. Scientific American, 269, 76–82.PubMedCrossRef
Hoffman, R. E., & Dobscha, S. K. (1989). Cortical pruning and the development of schizophrenia: A computer model. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 15, 477–490.PubMed
Hoffman, R. E., & McGlashan, T. H. (1993). Parallel distributed processing and the emergence of schizophrenic symptoms. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19, 119–139.PubMed
Hofmann, S. A., Meuret, A. E., Smits, J. A. J., Simon, N. M., Pollack, M. H., Eisenmenger, K., et al. (2006). Augmentation of exposure therapy with d-cycloserine for social anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 298–304. doi:10.​1001/​archpsyc.​63.​3.​298.PubMedCrossRef
Ilardi, S. S. (2002). The cognitive neuroscience perspective: A brief primer for clinical psychologists. The Behavior Therapist, 25, 49–52.
Isen, A. M. (1984). Affect, cognition, and social behavior. In R. S. Wyer & T. R. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 3, pp. 179–236). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Kalat, J. W. (2004). Biological psychology (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Kandel, E. R. (1991). Cellular mechanisms of learning and the biological basis of individuality. In E. R. Kandel, J. H. Schwartz, & T. M. Jessell (Eds.), Principles of neural science (pp. 1009–1031). Norwalk, CT: Appleton & Lange.
Keller, M. B., McCullough, J. P., Klein, D. N., Arnow, B., Dunner, D. L., Gelenberg, A. J., et al. (2000). A comparison of Negazodone, the cognitive behavioral-analysis system of psychotherapy, and their combination for the treatment of chronic depression. The New England Journal of Medicine, 342, 1462–1470. doi:10.​1056/​NEJM200005183422​001.PubMedCrossRef
Kesner, R. P., & Martinez, J. L. (Eds.). (2007). Neurobiology of learning and memory. New York: Elsevier.
Khan, A., Warner, H. A., & Brown, W. A. (2000). Symptom reduction and suicide risk in patients treated with placebo in antidepressant clinical trials: an analysis of the FDA database. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 311–317. doi:10.​1001/​archpsyc.​57.​4.​311.PubMedCrossRef
Kirsch, I., Deacon, B. J., Huedo-Medina, T. B. H., Scoboria, A., Moore, T. J., & Johnson, B. T. (2008). Initial severity and antidepressant benefits: A meta-analysis of data submitted to the food and drug administration. PLoS Medicine, 5, 260–268. doi:10.​1371/​journal.​pmed.​0050045.CrossRef
Klerman, G., Weissman, M., Rounseville, B., & Chevron, E. (1984). Interpersonal psychotherapy of depression. New York: Basic Books.
Klopf, A. H. (1988). A neuronal model of classical conditioning. Psychobiology, 16, 85–125.
Kong, J., Gollub, R. L., Rosman, I. S., Webb, J. M., Vangel, M. G., Kirsch, I., et al. (2006). Brain activity associated with expectancy-enhanced placebo analgesia as measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 381–388. doi:10.​1523/​JNEUROSCI.​3556-05.​2006.PubMedCrossRef
Kosko, B. (1987a). Constructing an associative memory. Byte, 12(September), 137–144.
Krasne, F. (2002). Neural analysis of learning in simple systems. In H. Pashler & R. Gallistel (Eds.), Stevens’ handbook of experimental psychology: Vol. 3. Learning, Motivation, and Emotion (3rd ed., pp. 131–200). New York: Wiley.
Lang, P. J. (1985). The cognitive psychophysiology of emotion: Fear and anxiety. In A. H. Turner & J. Maser (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 131–170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Lang, P. J. (1994). The motivational organization of emotions. In S. van Goozen, N. E. van de Poll, & J. A. Sergent (Eds.), Emotions: Essays on emotion theory. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Leonard, B. E. (2003). Fundamentals of psychopharmacology. New York: Wiley.CrossRef
Lewinsohn, P. M., Hoberman, H. M., Teri, L., & Hautzinger, M. (1985). An integrated theory of depression. In S. Reiss & R. Bootzin (Eds.), Theoretical issues in behavior therapy (pp. 331–359). New York: Academic Press.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Youngren, M. A., & Grosscup, S. J. (1979). Reinforcement and depression. In R. A. Dupue (Ed.), The psychobiology of depressive disorders: Implications for the effects of stress (pp. 291–316). New York: Academic Press.
Lynch, G. (2000). Memory consolidation and long-term potentiation. In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The new cognitive neurosciences (2nd ed., pp. 139–157). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Martin, K. C., Bartsch, D., Bailey, C. H., & Kandel, E. R. (2000a). Molecular mechanisms underlying learning-related long-lasting synaptic plasticity. In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The new cognitive neurosciences (2nd ed., pp. 121–137). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Martin, S. J., Grimwood, P. D., & Morris, R. G. M. (2000b). Synaptic placticity and memory: An evaluation of the hypothesis. Annual Review of Psychology, 23, 649–711.
Martindale, C. (1991). Cognitive psychology: A neural-network approach. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
McLeod, P., Plunkett, K., & Rolls, E. T. (1998). Introduction to connectionist modelling of cognitive processes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
Nemeroff, C. B., & Schatzberg, A. F. (2002). Pharmacological treatments for unipolar depression. In P. E. Nathan & J. M. Gorman (Eds.), Treatments that work (2nd ed., pp. 229–243). NY: Oxford University Press.
Norden, J. (2007). Understanding the brain. Chantilly, VA: The Teaching Company.
O’Reilly, R. C., & Munakata, Y. (2000). Computational explorations in cognitive neuroscience: Understanding the mind by simulating the brain. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Parks, R. W., & Levine, D. S. (1998). Neural network modeling of Wisconsin card sorting and verbal fluency tests: Applications with frontal lobe-damage and Alzheimer’s disease patients. In R. W. Parks, D. S. Levine, & D. L. Long (Eds.), Fundamentals of neural network modeling: Neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience (pp. 357–380). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Parks, R. W., Levine, D. S., & Long, D. L. (1998). Fundamentals of neural network modeling: Neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Rachman, S. (1990). Fear and courage. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Ressler, K. J., Rothbaum, B. O., Tannenbaum, L., Anderson, P., Graap, K., Zinamd, E., et al. (2004). Cognitive enhances as adjuncts to psychotherapy: Use of d-cycloserine in phobic individuals to facilitate extinction of fear. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 1136–1144. doi:10.​1001/​archpsyc.​61.​11.​1136.PubMedCrossRef
Rolls, E. T., & Treves, A. (1998). Neural networks and brain function. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosenblatt, F. (1962). Principles of neurodynamics. New York: Spartan.
Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986a). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, vol. 1: Foundations. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986b). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition psychological and biological models (Vol. 2). Cambridge: MIT Press.
Schultz, W. (1998). Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology, 80, 1–27.PubMed
Sejnowski, T. J., & Rosenberg, C. R. (1988). A parallel network that learns to read aloud. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Squire, L. R., Berg, D., Bloom, F. E., du Lac, S., Ghosh, A., & Spitzer, N. C. (2008). Fundamental neuroscience (3rd ed.). NY: Elsevier.
Staats, A. W. (1983). Psychology’s crisis of disunity: Philosophy and method for the revolution to a unified science. New York: Praeger.
Tryon, W. W. (1995b). Resolving the cognitive behavioral controversy. The Behavior Therapist, 18, 83–86.
Wagner, T. D., Rilling, J. K., Smith, E. E., Sokolik, A., Casey, K. L., Davidson, R. J., et al. (2004). Placebo-induced changes in fMRI in the anticipation and experience of pain. Science, 303, 1162–1167. doi:10.​1126/​science.​1093065.CrossRef
Weisman, M. M., Markowitz, J. C., & Klerman, G. L. (2000). Comprehensive guide to interpersonal psychotherapy. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Williams, J. M. G., Watts, F. N., MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1988). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders. New York: Wiley.
Wilson, E. O. (1998). Consilience: The unity of knowledge. New York: Knopf.
Wright, J. H., & Casey, D. A. (2005). Pharmacotherapy and cognitive therapy—combined treatment. In A. Freeman, S. H. Felgoise, & C. M. Nezu (Eds.), Encyclopedia of cognitive behavior therapy (pp. 285–288). London: Taylor & Francis.CrossRef
Metagegevens
Titel
Cognitive Processes in Cognitive and Pharmacological Therapies
Auteur
Warren W. Tryon
Publicatiedatum
01-12-2009
Uitgeverij
Springer US
Gepubliceerd in
Cognitive Therapy and Research / Uitgave 6/2009
Print ISSN: 0147-5916
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-2819
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-009-9243-0

Andere artikelen Uitgave 6/2009

Cognitive Therapy and Research 6/2009 Naar de uitgave

Original Article

Interpretation Bias in Panic Disorder: Self-Referential or Global?

Original Article

Overprotective Parenting, Social Anxiety, and External Locus of Control: Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Relationships

Original Article

Positive Social Alcohol Outcome Expectancies, Social Anxiety, and Hazardous Drinking in College Students

Original Article

Deductive Reasoning and Social Anxiety: Evidence for a Fear-confirming Belief Bias

Original Article

Exploring the Development of Perfectionistic Cognitions and Self-Beliefs

Original Article

Tendencies Toward Mania and Tendencies Toward Depression Have Distinct Motivational, Affective, and Cognitive Correlates