Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Specific Learning Disorder

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of DSM-5 Disorders in Children and Adolescents

Abstract

Controversies related to the definition of specific learning disability and the methods used to diagnosis this condition have long been a foremost concern in assessment-related fields. The publication of new criteria for diagnosing a specific learning disorder in the 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2013) has fueled such controversies. This chapter begins with a brief history of learning disabilities, including the diagnostic criteria for learning disorders in the five editions of the DSM. Next, etiology, associated impairments and comorbidities, course and developmental changes, prognosis, outcomes, and treatment are highlighted. This chapter concludes with a brief discussion of the most salient vagaries inherent in the latest diagnostic criteria for specific learning disorder in the DSM-5, many of which will be debated for some time to come.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 349.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 449.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 449.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Altemeier, L., Jones, J., Abbott, R. D., & Berninger, V. (2006). Executive functions in becoming writing readers and reading writers: Note-taking and report writing in third and fifth graders. Developmental Neuropsychology, 29, 161–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association .

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1968). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1952). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ansari, D. (2008). Effects of development and enculturation on number representation in the brain. Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 9, 278–291.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ansari, D. (2010). Neurocognitive approaches to developmental disorders of numerical and mathematical cognition: The perils of neglecting the role of development. Learning and Individual Differences, 20, 123–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ansari, D., & Dhital, B. (2006). Age-related changes in the activation of the intraparietal sulcus during nonsymbolic magnitude processing: An event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 1820–1828.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ansari, D., Garcia, N., Lucas, E., Hamon, K., & Dhital, B. (2005). Neural correlates of symbolic number processing in children and adults. Neuroreport, 16, 1769–1773.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bateman, B. (1965). An educational view of a diagnostic approach to learning disorders. In J. Hellmuth (Ed.), Learning disorders (vol. 1, pp. 219–239). Seattle, WA: Special Child Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, C. F. A., & Gaab, N. (2012). What’s the story? The tale of reading fluency told at speed. Human Brain Mapping, 33, 2572–2585.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bental, B., & Tirosh, E. (2007). The relationship between attention, executive functions and reading domain abilities in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and reading disorder: A comparative study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(5), 455–463. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01710.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berg, D. H. (2008). Working memory and arithmetic calculation in children: The contributory roles of processing speed, short-term memory, and reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 99, 288–308.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berl, M. M., Duke, E. S., Mayo, J., Rosenberger, L. R., Moore, E. N., VanMeter, J., … Gaillard, W. D. (2010). Brain and Language, 114, 115–125.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W. (2011). Evidence-based differential diagnosis and treatment of reading disabilities with and without comorbidities in oral language, writing, and math: Prevention, problem-solving consultation, and specialized instruction. In D. P. Flanagan & V. C. Alfonso (Eds.), Essentials of specific learning disability identification (pp. 203–232). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W. (1999). Coordinating transcription and text generation in working memory during composing: Automatic and constructive processes. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22, 99–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V., Abbott, R., Nagy, W., & Carlisle, J. (2010). Growth in phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness in grades 1 to 6. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research. Available from PringerLink, www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&id+doi:10.1007/s10936-009-9130-6

  • Betjemann, R. S., Keenan, J. M., Olson, R. K., & DeFries, J. (2011). Choice of reading comprehension test influences the outcomes of genetic analyses. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15, 363–382.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Betjemann, R. S., Willcutt, E. G., Olson, R. K., Keenan, J. M., DeFries, J., & Wadsworth, S. J. (2008). Word reading and reading comprehension: Stability, overlap, and independence. Reading and Writing, 29, 539–558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bourke, L., Davies, S. J., Sumner, E., & Green, C. (2013). Individual differences in the development of early writing skills: Testing the unique contribution of visuo-spatial working memory. Reading and Writing, 27, 315–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bull, R., & Johnston, R. S. (1997). Children’s arithmetical difficulties: Contributions from processing speed, item identification, and short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 65, 1–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B., Wadsworth, S., Corley, R., Samuelsson, S., Quain, P., deFries, J. C., … Olson, R. K. (2005). Longitudinal twin study of early literacy development: Preschool and kindergarten phases. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9, 219–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caravolas, M., Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2001). The foundations of spelling ability: Evidence from a 3-year longitudinal study. Journal of Memory and Language, 45, 751–774.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carretti, B., Borella, E., Cornoldi, C., & De Beni, R. (2009). Role of working memory in explaining the performance of individuals with specific reading comprehension difficulties: A metaanalysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 246–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catts, H. W., Fey, M. E., Zhang, X., & Tomblin, J. B. (1999). Language basis of reading and reading disabilities: Evidence from a longitudinal investigation. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 331–361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiu, M. M., & Klassen, R. M. (2010). Relations of mathematics self-concept and its calibration with mathematics achievement: Cultural differences among fifteen-year-olds in 34 countries. Learning and Instruction, 20, 2–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, C. A. (2004). Relationship between orthographic-motor integration and computer use for the production of creative and well-structured written text. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 551–564.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chochon, F., Cohen, L., van de Moortele, P. F., & Dehaene, S. (1999). Differential contributions of the left and right inferior parietal lobules to number processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 11(6), 617–630.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colker, R., Shaywitz, S., Shaywitz, B., & Simon, J. (2013). Comments on proposed DSM-5 criteria from a legal and medical/scientific perspective [Online comment]. Retrieved from http://dylexia.yale.edu/CommentsDSM5ColkerShaywitzSimon.pdf.

  • Compton, D. L., Davis, C. J., DeFries, J. C., Gayan, J., & Olson, R. K. (2001). Genetic and environmental influences on reading and RAN: An overview of results from the Colorado twin study. In M. Wolf (Ed.), Time, fluency, and developmental dyslexia (pp. 277–303). Baltimore: York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conti-Ramsden, G., Ullman, M. T., & Lum, J. A. G. (2015). The relation between receptive grammar and procedural, declarative, and working memory in specific language impairment. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1090.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cooney, S., Huser, M., Small, S., & O’Connor, C. (2007). Evidence-based programs: An overview. Retrieved from: http://www.uwex.edu/ces/flp/families/whatworks_06.pdf

  • Cornwall, A. (1992). The relationship of phonological awareness, rapid naming, and verbal memory to severe reading and spelling disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 532–538.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cortiella, C., & Horowitz, S. H. (2014). The state of learning disabilities: Facts, trends, and emerging issues. New York: National Center for Learning Disabilities.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cutting, L. E., & Scarborough, H. S. (2006). Prediction of reading comprehension: Relative contributions of word recognition, language proficiency, and other cognitive skills can depend on how comprehension is measured. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10, 277–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cutting, L. E., Materek, A., Cole, C. A. S., Levine, T. M., & Mahone, E. M. (2009). Effects of fluency, oral language, and executive function on reading comprehension performance. Annals of Dyslexia, 59, 34–54.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • D’Amico, A., & Guarnera, M. (2005). Exploring working memory in children with low arithmetical achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 15, 189–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D’Amico, A., & Passolunghi, M. C. (2009). Naming speed and effortful and automatic inhibition in children with arithmetic learning disabilities. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 170–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daly, C. J., Kelley, G. T., & Krauss, A. (2003). Relationship between visual-motor integration and handwriting skills of children in kindergarten: A modified replication study. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 57(4), 459–462.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, N., Cannistraci, C. J., Rogers, B. P., Catenby, J. C., Fuchs, L. S., Anderson, A. W., & Gore, J. C. (2009). The neural correlates of calculation ability in children: An fMRI study. Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 27, 1187–1197.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Decker, S. L., Hale, J. B., & Flanagan, D. P. (2013). Professional practice issues in the assessment of cognitive functioning for educational applications. Psychology in the Schools, 50(3), 300–313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Smedt, B., Holloway, I., & Ansari, D. (2011). Effects of problem size and arithmetic operation on brain activation during calculation in children with varying levels of arithmetical fluency. NeuroImage, 57, 771–781.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dehaene, S. (1992). Varieties of numerical abilities. Cognition, 44, 1–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dehaene, S., & Cohen, L. (1994). Dissociable mechanisms of subitizing and counting – Neuropsychological evidence from simultanagnosic patients. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 20, 958–975.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dehaene, S., & Cohen, L. (1995). Towards an anatomical and functional model of number processing. Mathematical Cognition, 1, 83–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dehaene, S., & Cohen, L. (1997). Cerebral pathways for calculation: Double dissociation between rote verbal and quantitative knowledge of arithmetic. Cortex, 33, 219–250.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dehaene, S., & Cohen, L. (2011). The unique role of the visual word form area in reading. Trends in Cognitive Science, 15, 254–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dehaene, S., Molko, N., Cohen, L., & Wilson, A. J. (2004). Arithmetic and the brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14, 218–224.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dehaene, S., Spelke, E., Pinel, P., Stanescu, R., & Tsivkin, S. (1999). Sources of mathematical thinking: Behavioral and brain-imaging evidence. Science, 284, 970–974.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Della Toffalo, D. A. (2010). Linking school neuropsychology with response-to-intervention models. In D. C. Miller (Ed.), Best practices in school neuropsychology: Guidelines for effective practice, assessment, and evidence-based intervention (pp. 159–184). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dockrell, J. E., Lindsay, G., & Connelly, V. (2009). The impact of specific language impairments on adolescents’ written text. Exceptional Children, 75, 427–446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DuPaul, G. J., Gormley, M. J., & Laracy, S. D. (2013). Comorbidity of LD and ADHD: Implications of DSM-5 for assessment and treatment. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46(1), 43–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eckert, M. A., Leonard, C. M., Richards, T. L., Aylward, E. H., Thomson, J., & Berninger, V. W. (2003). Anatomical correlates of dyslexia: Frontal and cerebellar findings. Brain, 126, 482–494.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18, 5–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feder, K. P., & Majnener, A. (2007). Handwriting, development, competency, and intervention. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 49, 312–317.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Federal Register. (2006). Part II. In 34 CFR parts 300 and 301 rules and regulations (vol. 71, 156th ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feifer, S. (2011). How SLD manifests in reading. In D. P. Flanagan & V. C. Alfonso (Eds.), Essentials of specific learning disability identification (pp. 21–42). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feifer, S. G. (2014). Selecting and tailoring interventions for students with reading difficulties. In D. P. Flanagan & V. C. Alfonso (Eds.), Planning, selecting, and tailoring interventions for unique learners (pp. 151–177). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feigenson, L., Dehaene, S., & Spelke, E. (2004). Core systems of numbers. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8, 307–314.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferstl, E. C., Neumann, J., Bogler, C., & von Cramon, D. Y. (2008). The extended language network: A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies on text comprehension. Human Brain Mapping, 29, 581–593.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fey, M. E., Catts, H. W., Proctor-Williams, K., Tomblin, J., & Zhang, X. Y. (2004). Oral and written story composition skills of children with language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 1301–1318.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fiorello, C. A., Hale, J. B., & Wycoff, K. L. (2012). Cognitive hypothesis testing: Linking test results to the real world. In D. P. Flanagan & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (2nd ed.pp. 484–496). New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan, D. P., & Alfonso, V. C. (2011). Essentials of specific learning disability identification. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan, D. P., Ortiz, S. O., & Alfonso, V. C. (2013). Essentials of cross-battery assessment (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan, D. P., Ortiz, S. O., Alfonso, V. C., & Mascolo, J. (2002). The achievement test desk reference (ATDR): Comprehensive assessment and learning disabilities. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher-Janzen, E., & Reynolds, C. R. (Eds.). (2008). Neuropsychological perspectives on learning disabilities in the era of RTI: Recommendations for diagnosis and intervention. Hoboken NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2007). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. M., Simos, P. G., Papanicolaou, A. C., & Denton, C. (2004). Neuroimaging in reading research. In N. Duke & M. Mallette (Eds.), Literacy research methods (pp. 252–286). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, D., Compton, D. L., Fuchs, L. S., Bouton, B., & Caffrey, E. (2011). The construct and predictive validity of a dynamic assessment of young children learning to read: Implications for RTI frameworks. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 44(4), 339–347.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (1993). Mathematical disabilities: Cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 345–362.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (2004). Mathematics and learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 4–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (2010). Mathematical disabilities: Reflections on cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components. Learning and Individual Differences, 20, 130–133.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (2011). Cognitive predictors of achievement growth in mathematics: A five year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 47, 1539–1552.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (2013). Early foundations for mathematics learning and their relations to learning disabilities. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 23.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C., Bailey, D. H., & Hoard, M. K. (2009). Predicting mathematical achievement and mathematical learning disability with a simple screening tool: The number sets test. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 27, 265–279.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C., Bow-Thomas, C. C., & Yao, Y. (1992). Counting knowledge and skill in cognitive addition: A comparison of normal and mathematically disabled children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 54, 372–391.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C., Hamson, C. O., & Hoard, M. K. (2000). Numerical and arithmetical cognition: A longitudinal study of process and concept deficits in children with learning disability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77, 236–263.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C., Hoard, M. K., Nugent, L., & Bailey, D. H. (2012). Mathematical cognition deficits in children with learning difficulties and persistent low achievement: A five-year prospective study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 206–223.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C., Hoard, M. K., Nugent, L., & Byrd-Craven, J. (2008). Development of number line representations in children with mathematical learning disability. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33, 277–299.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Georgiou, G. K., Parrila, R., & Liao, C. H. (2008). Rapid naming speed and reading across languages that vary in orthographic consistency. Reading and Writing, 21, 885–903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gernsbacher, M. A., & Kaschak, M. P. (2003). Neuroimaging studies of language production and comprehension. Annual Reviews of Psychology, 54, 91–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2005). Improving the writing performance of young struggling writers. The Journal of Special Education, 39(1), 19–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., Gillespie, A., & McKeown, D. (2013). Writing: Importance, development, and instruction. Reading and Writing, 26, 1–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grigorenko, E. L. (2001). Developmental dyslexia: An update on genes, brains, and environments. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 91–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grigorenko, E. L. (2005). A conservative meta-analysis of linkage and linkage-association studies of developmental dyslexia. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9, 285–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groce, N., Challenger, E., Berman-Bieler, R., Farkas, A., Yilmaz, N., Schultink, W., … Kerac, M. (2014). Malnutrition and disability: Unexplored opportunities for collaboration. Paediatrics and International Child Health, 34(4), 308–314.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., Levine, S. C., & Beilock, S. L. (2011). The role of parents and teachers in the development of gender-related math attitudes. Sex Roles, 66, 153–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., Beilock, S. L., & Levine, S. C. (2012). The relation between spatial skill and early number knowledge: The role of the linear number line. Developmental Psychology, 48, 1229–1241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halberda, J., Mazzocco, M. M., & Feigenson, L. (2008). Individual differences in non-verbal number acuity correlate with maths achievement. Nature, 455, 665–668.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hale, J. B., & Fiorello, C. A. (2004). School neuropsychology: A practitioner’s handbook. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanich, L. B., Jordan, N. C., Kaplan, D., & Dick, J. (2001). Performance across different areas of mathematical cognition in children with learning difficulties. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 615–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harlaar, N., Cutting, L., Deater-Deckard, K., DeThorne, L. S., Justice, L. M., Schatschneider, C., … Petrill, S. A. (2010). Predicting individual differences in reading comprehension: A twin study. Annals of Dyslexia, 60, 265–288.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hale, J., Alfonso, V., Berninger, V., Bracken, B., Christo, C., Clark, E., … Yalof, J. (2010). Critical issues in response-to-intervention, comprehensive evaluation, and specific learning disabilities identification and intervention: An expert white paper consensus. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33(3), 223–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hale, J. B., Wycoff, K. L., & Fiorello, C. A. (2011). RTI and cognitive hypothesis testing for identification and intervention of specific learning disabilities: The best of both worlds. In D. P. Flanagan & V. C. Alfonso (Eds.), Essentials of specific learning disability identification (pp. 173–202). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harlaar, N., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2007). From learning to read to reading to learn: Substantial and stable genetic influence. Child Development, 78, 116–131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, K., & Graham, S. (2013). “an adjective is a word hanging down from a noun”: Learning to write and students with learning disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia, 63, 65–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, S. A., Petrill, S. A., & Thompson, L. A. (2010). A factorial analysis of timed and untimed measures of mathematics and reading abilities in school aged twins. Learning and Individual Differences, 20, 63.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hedenius, M., Persson, J., Tremblay, A., Adi-Japha, E., Verissimo, J., Dye, C. D., … Ullman, M. T. (2012). Grammar predicts procedural learning and consolidation deficits in children with specific language impairment. Research on Developmental Disabilities, 32, 2362–2375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hallahan, D. P., & Mercer, C. D. (2001). Learning disabilities: Historical perspectives, Paper written for the Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education, and presented at the OSEP’s LD summit conference. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Educational Resources Information Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallahan, D. P., & Mock, D. R. (2003). A brief history of the field of learning disabilities. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herr, C. M., & Bateman, B. D. (2003). Learning disabilities and the law. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinshelwood, J. (1902). Congenital word-blindness with reports of two cases. London: John Bale, Sons & Danielsson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holm, A., Farrier, F., & Dodd, B. (2008). Phonological awareness, reading accuracy, and spelling ability of children with inconsistent phonological disorder. International Journal of Language and Communication, 43, 300–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hooper, S. R., Swarz, C. W., Wakely, M. B., de Kruif, R. E., & Montgomery, J. W. (2002). Executive functions in elementary school children with and without problems in written expression. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 57–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, M. W., Ashby, J., & Branigan, H. P. (2013). Dyslexia and fluency: Parafoveal and foveal influences on rapid automatized naming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance., 39, 554–567.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan, N. C., & Hanich, L. B. (2003). Characteristics of children with moderate mathematics deficiencies: A longitudinal perspective. Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice, 18, 213–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katanoda, K., Yoshikawa, K., & Sugishita, M. (2001). A functional MRI study on the neural substrates for writing. Human Brain Mapping, 13, 34–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann, L., Koppelstaetter, F., Siedentopf, C., Haala, I., Haberlandt, E., Zimmerhackl, L. B., & Ischebeck, A. (2006). Neural correlates of the number-size interference task in children. Neuroreport, 17, 587–591.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kavale, K. A., Kauffman, J. M., Bachmeier, R. J., & LeFever, G. B. (2008). Response-to-intervention: Separating the rhetoric of self-congratulation from the reality of specific learning disability identification. Learning Disability Quarterly, 31, 135–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keenan, J. M., Betjemann, R. S., Wadsworth, S. J., DeFries, J. C., & Olson, R. K. (2006). Genetic and environmental influences on reading and listening comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 29, 79–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kendeou, P., van den Broek, P., White, M. J., & Lynch, J. S. (2009). Predicting reading comprehension in early elementary school: The independent contributions of oral language and decoding skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 765–778.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kesler, S. R., Sheau, K., Koovakkattu, D., & Reiss, A. L. (2011). Changes in frontal-parietal activation and math skills performance following adaptive number sense training: Preliminary results from a pilot study. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 21(4), 433–454. doi:10.1080/09602011.2011.578446.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, D. (2014). Tailoring interventions in reading based on emerging research on the development of word recognition skills. In D. P. Flanagan & V. C. Alfonso (Eds.), Planning, selecting, and tailoring interventions for unique learners (pp. 123–150). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirk, S. A. (1962). Educating exceptional children. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirk, S. A., McCarthy, J., & Kirk, W. D. (1967). The Illinois test of psycholinguistic abilities. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kodituwakku, P. W. (2007). Defining the behavioral phenotype in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: A review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 31(2), 192–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kovas, Y., Haworth, C. M. A., Petrill, S. A., & Plomin, R. (2007). Mathematical ability of 10-year-old boys and girls: Genetic and environmental etiology of typical and low performance. Journal of Learning of Disabilities, 40, 554–567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krakowiak, P., Walker, C. K., Bremer, A. A., Baker, A. S., Ozonoff, S., Hansen, R. L., & Hertz-Picciotto, I. (2012). Maternal metabolic conditions and risk for autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders. Pediatrics, 129(5), e1121–e1128.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kucian, K., von Aster, M., Loenneker, T., Dietrich, T., & Martin, E. (2008). Development of neural networks for exact and approximate calculation: A FMRI study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33, 447–473.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landerl, K., Bevan, K., & Butterworth, B. (2004). Developmental dyscalculia and basic numerical capacities: A study of 8–9-year-old students. Cognition, 93, 99–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lemer, C., Dehaene, S., Spelke, E., & Cohen, L. (2003). Approximate quantities and exact number words: Dissociable systems. Neuropsychologia, 41, 1942–1958.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Locascio, G., Mahone, E. M., Eason, S. H., & Cutting, L. E. (2010). Executive dysfunction among children with reading comprehension deficits. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43, 441–454.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Loriaux, D. L. (2010). Historical note: Adolf Kussmaul (1822-1902). The Endocrinologist, 20(3), 95. doi:10.1097/TEN.0b013e3181e1e558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lukowski, S. L., Soden, B., Hart, S. A., Thompson, L. A., Kovas, Y., & Petrill, S. A. (2014). Etiological distinction of working memory components in relation to mathematics. Intelligence, 47, 54–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mackie, C., & Dockrell, J. E. (2004). The writing skills of children with SLI. Journal of Speech, Language, & Hearing Research, 47, 1469–1483.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magrassi, L., Bongetta, D., Bianchini, S., Berardesca, M., & Arienta, C. (2010). Central and peripheral components of writing critically depend on a defined area of the dominant superior parietal gyrus. Brain Research, 1346, 145–154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mascolo, J. T., Alfonso, V. C., & Flanagan, D. P. (2014). Essentials of planning, selecting and tailoring intervention: Addressing the needs of the unique learner. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mascolo, J. T., Flanagan, D. P., & Alfonso, V. C. (2014). A systematic method of analyzing assessment results for tailoring interventions (SMAARTI). In J. T. Mascolo, V. C. Alfonso, & D. P. Flanagan (Eds.), Essentials of planning, selecting, and tailoring interventions for unique learners (pp. 3–55). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, L. H., Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (2011). Self-regulated strategy development for students with writing difficulties. Theory Into Practice, 50, 20–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mather, N., & Wendling, B. J. (2011). How SLD manifests in writing. In D. P. Flanagan & V. C. Alfonso (Eds.), Essentials of specific learning disability identification. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazzocco, M. M., Devlin, K. T., & McKenney, S. J. (2008). Is it a fact? Timed arithmetic performance of children with mathematical learning disabilities (MLD) varies as a function of how MLD is defined. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33, 318–344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzocco, M. M., Feigenson, L., & Halberda, J. (2011). Impaired acuity of the approximate number system underlies mathematical learning disability (dyscalculia). Child Development, 82, 1224–1237.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzocco, M. M., & Rasanen, P. (2013). Contributions of longitudinal studies to evolving definitions and knowledge of developmental dyscalculia. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 2, 65–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D. (1996). A capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition. Educational Psychology Review, 8, 299–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonough, E. M., & Flanagan, D. P. (2016). Use of the Woodcock-Johnson IV in the identification of specific learning disabilities in school-age children. In D. P. Flanagan & V. C. Alfonso (Eds.), WJ IV clinical use and interpretation: Scientist-practitioner perspectives. Burlington, MA: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melby-Lervåg, M., Lyster, S.-A. H., & Hulme, C. (2012). Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 322–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moll, K., Göbel, S. M., & Snowling, M. J. (2015). Basic number processing in children with specific learning disorders: Comorbidity of reading and mathematics disorders. Child Neuropsychology, 21, 399–417.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Monroe, M. (1932). Children who cannot read: The analysis of reading disabilities and the use of diagnostic tests in the instruction of retarded readers. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mussolin, C., De Volder, A., Grandin, A., Schlogel, X., Nassogne, M. C., & Noel, M. P. (2010a). Neural correlates of symbolic number comparison in developmental dyscalculia. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22, 860–874.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mussolin, C., Mejias, S., & Noel, M. P. (2010b). Symbolic and nonsymbolic number comparison in children with and without dyscalculia. Cognition, 115, 10–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norton, E. S., & Wolf, M. (2012). Rapid automatized naming and reading fluency: Implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 427–452.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien, B. A., Wolf, M., Miller, L. T., Lovett, M. W., & Morris, R. (2011). Orthographic processing efficiency in developmental dyslexia: An investigation of age and treatment factors at the sublexical level. Annals of Dyslexia, 61, 111–135.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olinghouse, N. G., & Wilson, J. (2013). The relationship between vocabulary and writing quality in three genres. Reading and Writing, 26, 45–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olson, R. K., Hulslander, J., Christopher, M., Keenan, J. M., Wadsworth, S. J., Willcutt, E. G., … DeFries, J. C. (2013). Genetic and environmental influences on writing and their relations to language and reading. Annals of Dyslexia, 63, 25–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ortiz, S. O., Flanagan, D. P., & Alfonso, V. C. (2015). Cross-battery assessment software system (X-BASS). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orton, S. T. (1925). Word-blindness in school children. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 14, 581–615.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paracchini, S., Steer, C. D., Buckingham, L. L., Morris, A. P., Ring, S., Scerri, T., … Monaco, A. P. (2007). Association of the KIAA0319 dyslexia susceptibility gene with reading skills in the general population. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 1576–1584.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pelegrina, S., Capodieci, A., Carretti, B., & Cornoldi, C. (2014). Magnitude representation and working memory updating in children with arithmetic and reading comprehension disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 48, 658–668.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peng, P., & Fuchs, D. (2014). A meta-analysis of working memory deficits in children with learning difficulties: Is there a difference between verbal domain and numerical domain? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1–18. doi:10.1177/0022219414521667.

  • Penington, B. F., & Olson, R. K. (2005). Genetics of dyslexia. The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 453–472). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Petrill, S. A., Deater-Deckard, K., Thompson, L. A., DeThorne, L. S., & Schatschneider, C. (2006). Genetic and shared environmental effects of serial naming and phonological awareness on early reading outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 112–121.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Petrill, S. A., Deater-Deckard, K., Thompson, L. A., Schatscheider, C., & DeThorne, L. S. (2007). Longitudinal genetic analysis of early reading: The western reserve reading project. Reading and Writing, 20, 127–146.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Petrill, S. A., Logan, J., Hart, S. A., Vincent, P., Thompson, L. A., Kovas, Y., & Plomin, R. (2012). Math fluency is etiologically distinct from untimed math performance, decoding fluency, and untimed reading performance: Evidence from a twin study. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45, 371–381.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct. New York: William Morrow.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Planton, S., Jucla, M., Roux, F.-E., & De’monet, J.-F. (2013). The “handwriting brain”: A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies of motor versus orthographic processes. Cortex, 49, 2772–2787.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Price, G. R., & Ansari, D. (2013). Dyscalculia: Characteristics, causes, and treatments. Numeracy, 6, 2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Purcell, J., Shea, J., & Rapp, B. (2014). Beyond the visual word form area: The orthography–semantics interface in spelling and reading. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 31, 482–510.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Raghubar, K. P., Barnes, M. A., & Hecht, S. A. (2010). Working memory and mathematics: A review of developmental, individual difference, and cognitive approaches. Learning and Individual Differences, 20, 110–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rapp, B., Purcell, J., Hillis, A. E., Capasso, R., & Miceli, G. (2015). Neural bases of orthographic long-term memory and working memory in dysgraphia. Brain, 138, 1–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raskind, W. H., Igo, R. P., Chapman, N. H., Berninger, V. W., Thomson, J. B., Matsushita, M., … Wijsman, E. M. (2005). A genome scan in multigenerational families with dyslexia: Identification of a novel locus on chromosome 2p that contributes to phonological decoding efficiency. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 699–711.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reiter, A., Tucha, O., & Lange, K. W. (2005). Executive functions in children with dyslexia. Dyslexia, 11, 116–131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, M. B., Gueorguieva, R. V., Carter, R. L., Ariet, M., Sun, Y., Roth, J., … Mahan, C. S. (1999). The impact of low birth weight, perinatal conditions, and sociodemographic factors on educational outcome in kindergarten. Pediatrics, 104(6), 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R., & Shaywitz, S. A. (2009). Response to intervention: Prevention and remediation, perhaps, diagnosis, no. Child Development Perspectives, 3, 44–47.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, T. L., Aylward, E. H., Berninger, V. W., Field, K. M., Grimme, A. C., Richards, A. L., … Nagy, W. (2006). Individual fMRI activation in orthographic mapping and morpheme mapping after orthographic or morphological spelling treatment in child dyslexics. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 19, 56–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, T. L., Berninger, V. W., Nagy, W., Parsons, A., Field, K., & Richards, A. L. (2005). Brain activation during language task contrasts in children with and without dyslexia: Inferring mapping processes and assessing response to spelling instruction. Educational and Child Psychology, 22, 62–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richlan, F. (2012). Developmental dyslexia: Dysfunction of a left hemisphere reading network. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 120.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Richlan, F., Kronbichler, M., & Wimmer, H. (2009). Functional abnormalities in the dyslexic brain: A quantitative meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. Human Brain Mapping, 30, 3299–3308.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenblum, S., Aloni, T., & Josman, N. (2009). Relationships between handwriting performance and organizational abilities among children with and without dysgraphia: A preliminary study. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31, 502–509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rotzer, S., Kucian, K., Martin, E., von Aster, M., Klaver, P., & Loenneker, T. (2008). Optimized voxel-based morphometry in children with developmental dyscalculia. NeuroImage, 39, 417–422.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rouder, J. N., & Geary, D. C. (2014). Children’s cognitive representation of the mathematical number line. Developmental Science, 17, 525–536.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rykhlevskaia, E., Uddin, L. Q., Kondos, L., & Menon, V. (2009). Neuroanatomical correlates of developmental dyscalculia: Combined evidence from morphometry and tractography. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 3, 51.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Santangelo, T., & Graham, S. (2014). Selecting and tailoring interventions for students with written expression difficulties. In J. T. Mascolo, V. C. Alfonso, & D. P. Flanagan (Eds.), Essentials of planning, selecting, and tailoring interventions for unique learners (pp. 204–230). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scarborough, H. S. (2005). Developmental relationships between language and reading: Reconciling a beautiful hypothesis with some ugly facts. In H. W. Catts & A. G. Kamhi (Eds.), The connections between language and reading disabilities (pp. 3–24). Mahwah, NJ: erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scerri, T. S., Morris, A. P., Buckingham, L., Newbury, D. F., Miller, L., Monaco, A. P., … Paracchini, S. (2011). DCDC2, KIAA0319 and CMIP are associated with reading-related traits. Biological Psychiatry, 70, 237–245.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Scerri, T. S., & Schulte-Korne, G. (2010). Genetics of developmental dyslexia. European Journal of Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 19, 179–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schatschneider, C., Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Carlson, C. D., & Foorman, B. R. (2004). Kindergarten prediction of reading skills: A longitudinal comparative analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 265–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulte-Korne, G. (2001). Genetics of reading and spelling disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 985–997.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sesma, H. W., Mahone, E. M., Levine, T. M., Eason, S. H., & Cutting, L. E. (2009). The contribution of executive skills to reading comprehension. Child Neuropsychology, 15, 1–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shah, C., Erhard, K., Ortheil, H.-J., Kaza, E., Kessler, C., & Lotze, M. (2013). Neural correlates of creative writing: An fMRI study. Human Brain Mapping, 34, 1088–1101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shalev, R. S., Manor, O., Kerem, B., Ayali, M., Badichi, N., Friedlander, Y., & Gross-Tsur, V. (2001). Developmental dyscalculia is familial learning disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 59–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Share, D. L., & Leikin, M. (2004). Language impairment at school entry and later reading disability: Connections at lexical versus supralexical levels of reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 8, 87–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2004). Reading disability and the brain. Educational Leadership, 61(6), 6–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Blachman, B., Pugh, K. R., Fulbright, R. K., Skudlarski, P., … Gore, J. C. (2004). Development of left occipitotemporal systems for skills reading in children after a phonologically based intervention. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 926–933.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, S. E., Pugh, K. R., Jenner, A. R., Fulbright, R. K., Fletcher, J. M., & Gore, J. C. (2000). The neurobiology of reading and reading disability (dyslexia). In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (vol. 3, pp. 229–249). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silani, L. S., Frith, U., Demonet, J. R., Fazio, F., Perani, D., Price, C., … Paulesu, E. (2005). Brain abnormalities underlying altered activation in dyslexia: A voxel-based morphometry study. Brain, 128, 2453–2461.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skeide, M. A., Kirsten, H., Kraft, I., Schaadt, G., Muller, B., Neef, N., … Friederici, A. D. (2015). Genetic dyslexia risk variant is related to neural connectivity patterns underlying phonological awareness in children. NeuroImage, 118, 414–421.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T., & Adams, G. (2006). The effect of comorbid AD/HD and learning disabilities on parent-reported behavioral and academic outcomes of children. Learning Disability Quarterly, 29(2), 101–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sotelo-Dynega, M., Flanagan, D. P., & Alfonso, V. C. (2011). Specific learning disabilities: An overview of definitions, classification systems and methods of identification. In D. P. Flanagan & V. C. Alfonso (Eds.), Essentials of specific learning disability identification. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K. E. (2005). The future of a mistake: Will discrepancy measurement continue to make the learning disabilities field a pseudoscience? Learning Disability Quarterly, 28(2), 103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, H. L., & Jerman, O. (2006). Math disabilities: A selective meta-analysis of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 76, 249–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szűcs, D., & Goswami, U. (2013). Developmental dyscalculia: Fresh perspectives. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 2, 33–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tan, L. H., Spinks, J. A., Eden, G. F., Perfetti, C. A., & Siok, W. T. (2005). Reading depends on writing in Chinese. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 102, 8781–8785.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tannock, R. (2013). Specific learning disabilities in DSM-5: Are the changes for better or worse? The International Journal for Research in Learning Disabilities, 1(2), 2–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Temple, C. M., & Sherwood, S. (2002). Representation and retrieval of arithmetical facts: Developmental difficulties. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55A, 733–752.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torgesen, K. L. (2000). Individual differences in response to early interventions in reading: The lingering problem of treatment resisters. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15, 55–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Troia, G. A., & Graham, S. (2002). The effectiveness of a highly explicit, teacher-directed strategy instruction routine: Changing the writing performance of students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 290–305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tylenda, B., Hooper, S. R., & Barrett, R. P. (1987). Developmental learning disorders. In C. L. Frame & J. L. Matson (Eds.), Handbook of assessment in child psychopathology: Applied issues in differential diagnosis and treatment (pp. 187–217). New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ullman, M. T., Pancheva, P., Love, T., Yee, E., Swinney, D., & Hickok, G. (2005). Neural correlates of lexicon and grammar: Evidence from the production, reading, and judgment of inflection in aphasia. Brain and Language, 93, 185–238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Sluis, S., de Jong, P. F., & van der Leij, A. (2004). Inhibition and shifting in children with learning deficits in arithmetic and reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87, 239–266.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Hoorn, J. F., Maathuis, C. G., & Hadders-Algra, M. (2013). Neural correlates of paediatric dysgraphia. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 55, 65–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vukovic, R. K., & Siegel, L. S. (2006). The double-deficit hypothesis: A comprehensive analysis of the evidence. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 25–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vukovic, R. K., Kieffer, M. J., Bailey, S. P., & Harari, R. R. (2013). Mathematics anxiety in young children: Concurrent and longitudinal associations with mathematical performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wadsworth, S. J., Olson, R. K., Pennington, B. F., & DeFries, J. C. (2000). Differential genetic etiology of reading disability as a function of IQ. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 192–199.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1994). The development of reading-related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bi-directional causality from a latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 30, 73–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., Rashotte, C. A., & Hecht, S. A. (1997). Changing relations between phonological processing abilities and word-level reading as children develop from beginning to skilled readers: A 5-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 33, 468–479.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willcutt, E. G., Pennington, B. F., Smith, S. D., Cardon, L. R., Gayan, J., Knopik, V. S., … DeFries, J. C. (2002). Quantitative trait locus for reading disability on chromosome 6p is pleiotropic for attention-defict/hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 114(3), 260–268.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willcutt, E. G., Petrill, S. A., Wu, S., Boada, R., DeFries, J. C., Olson, R. K., & Pennington, B. F. (2013). Comorbidity between reading disability and math disability: Concurrent psychopathology, functional impairment, and neuropsychological functioning. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46, 500–516.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yeong, S. H. M., Fletcher, J., & Bayliss, D. (2014). Importance of phonological and orthographic skills for English reading and spelling: A comparison of English monolingual and mandarin-English bilingual children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106, 1107–1121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Rutgers University, Queens, USA

    Erin M. McDonough

  2. St. John’s University, Queens, NY, USA

    Dawn P. Flanagan & Megan Sy

  3. Gonzaga University, Spokane, WA, USA

    Vincent C. Alfonso

Authors
  1. Erin M. McDonough
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Dawn P. Flanagan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Megan Sy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Vincent C. Alfonso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Erin M. McDonough .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Neurology, Learning and Behavior Center, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA

    Sam Goldstein

  2. Intermountain Healthcare, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA

    Melissa DeVries

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

McDonough, E.M., Flanagan, D.P., Sy, M., Alfonso, V.C. (2017). Specific Learning Disorder. In: Goldstein, S., DeVries, M. (eds) Handbook of DSM-5 Disorders in Children and Adolescents. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57196-6_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation