Skip to main content

Research in Work and Organizational Psychology: Social Exclusion in the Workplace

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Social Exclusion

Abstract

Workplace social exclusion, the experience of being ignored, avoided, and/or rejected by at least one other organizational member, is a painful social experience that can thwart one’s sense of belonging and acceptance at work. In this chapter, we review the broad research that has been conducted on workplace social exclusion, and the myriad of forms it can take. We discuss both the reasons why it might occur in an organizational setting as well as the impact it has on employees’ well-being and work-related behaviors. Finally, we discuss some strategies managers can apply in the hopes of eliminating or preventing this often insidious form of social mistreatment in the workplace.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, J. W. (2009). Organizational shunning: The disciplinary functions of “non-sense”. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 17, 36–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andersson, L. M., & Pearson, C. M. (1999). Tit for tat? The spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace. Academy of Management Review, 24, 452–471.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aquino, K. (2000). Structural and individual determinants of workplace victimization: The effects of hierarchical status and conflict management style. Journal of Management, 26, 171–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aquino, K., & Bradfield, M. (2000). Perceived victimization in the workplace: The role of situational factors and victim characteristics. Organization Science, 11, 525–537.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aquino, K., & Thau, S. (2009). Workplace victimization: Aggression from the target’s perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 717–741.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balliet, D., & Ferris, D. L. (2013). Ostracism and prosocial behavior: A social dilemma perspective. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 120, 298–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banki, S. (2012). How much is too many? Partial ostracism and its consequences. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. A., & Neuman, J. H. (1996). Workplace violence and workplace aggression: Evidence on their relative frequency and potential causes. Aggressive Behavior, 22, 161–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. J., & Twenge, J. M. (2005). Social exclusion impairs self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 589–604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, R. J., & Robinson, S. L. (2000). Development of a measure of workplace deviance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 349–360.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bettenhausen, K. L., & Murnighan, J. K. (1991). The development of an intragroup norm and the effects of interpersonal and structural challenges. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36, 20–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bilimoria, D., Joy, S., & Liang, X. (2008). Breaking barriers and creating inclusiveness: Lessons of organizational transformation to advance women faculty in academic science and engineering. Human Resource Management, 47, 423–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blackhart, G. C., Eckel, L. A., & Tice, D. M. (2007). Salivary cortisol in response to acute social rejection and acceptance by peers. Biological Psychology, 75, 267–276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Böckler, A., Hömke, P., & Sebanz, N. (2014). Invisible man: Exclusion from shared attention affects gaze behavior and self-reports. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5, 140–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowling, N. A., & Beehr, T. A. (2006). Workplace harassment from the victim’s perspective: A theoretical model and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 998–1012.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buckley, K. E., Winkel, R. E., & Leary, M. R. (2004). Reactions to acceptance and rejection: Effects of level and sequence of relational evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 14–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, M. M. (1983). Exclusion of women from influential men’s clubs: The inner sanctum and the myth of full equality. The Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 18, 321–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter-Sowell, A. R., Chen, Z., & Williams, K. D. (2008). Ostracism increases social susceptibility. Social Influence, 3, 143–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Z., & Williams, K. D. (2007, May). Partial ostracism as a means of discovering moderators. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chow, R. M., Tiedens, L. Z., & Govan, C. L. (2008). Excluded emotions: The role of anger in antisocial responses to ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 896–903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. The American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95–S120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cortina, L. M. (2008). Unseen injustice: Incivility as modern discrimination in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 33, 55–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, T. H., & Blake, S. (1991). Managing cultural diversity: Implications for organizational competitiveness. The Executive, 5, 45–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, M. N., & Ferdman, B. M. (2002). Inclusion: What can I and my organization do about it? The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist, 39, 80–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deal, T., & Key, M. (1998). Corporate celebration: Play, purpose, and profit at work. New York, NY: Berrett-Koehler.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derfler-Rozin, R., Pillutla, M., & Thau, S. (2010). Social reconnection revisited: The effects of social exclusion risk on reciprocity, trust, and general risk-taking. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 112, 140–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeWall, C. N., Twenge, J. M., Bushman, B., Im, C., & Williams, K. (2010). A little acceptance goes a long way: Applying social impact theory to the rejection-aggression link. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1, 168–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeWall, C. N., Twenge, J. M., Gitter, S. A., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). It’s the thought that counts: The role of hostile cognition in shaping aggressive responses to social exclusion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 45–59.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dotan-Eliaz, O., Sommer, K. L., & Rubin, Y. S. (2009). Multilingual groups: Effects of linguistic ostracism on felt rejection and anger, coworker attraction, perceived team potency, and creative performance. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 31, 363–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dovidio, J. F., Glick, P., & Rudman, L. A. (2005). Introduction: Reflecting on the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport. In J. F. Dovidio, P. Glick, & L. A. Rudman (Eds.), On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport (pp. 1–15). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Duffy, M. K., Ganster, D. C., & Pagon, M. (2002). Social undermining in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 45, 331–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, R. M. (1976). Social exchange theory. Annual Review of Sociology, 2, 335–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferris, D. L., Brown, D. J., Berry, J. W., & Lian, H. (2008). The development and validation of the Workplace Ostracism Scale. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 1348–1366.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferris, D. L., Brown, D. J., & Heller, D. (2009). Organizational supports and organizational deviance: The mediating role of organization-based self-esteem. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108, 279–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferris, D. L., Lian, H., Brown, D. J., & Morrison, R. (2015). Ostracism, self-esteem, and job performance: When do we self-verify and when do we self-enhance? Academy of Management Journal, 58, 279–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folger, R. (2001). Fairness as deonance. In S. W. Gilliland, D. D. Steiner, & D. P. Skarlicki (Eds.), Research in social issues in management (Vol. 1, pp. 3–33). New York, NY: Information Age Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, S., & Stallworth, L. E. (2005). Racial/ethnic bullying: Exploring links between bullying and racism in the US workplace. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 438–456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frame, M. J. (2000). The relationship between visual impairment and gestures. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 93, 155–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. Orlando, FL: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaertner, L., Iuzzini, J., & O’Mara, E. M. (2008). When rejection by one fosters aggression against many: Multiple-victim aggression as a consequence of social rejection and perceived groupness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 958–970.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gelfand, M. J., Nishii, L. H., Raver, J. L., & Schneider, B. (2007). Discrimination in organizations: An organizational-level systems perspective (CAHRS Working Paper #07-8). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cahrswp/470.

  • Gerber, J., & Wheeler, L. (2009). On being rejected: A meta-analysis of experimental research on rejection. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 468–488.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Golden, T. D., Veiga, J. F., & Dino, R. N. (2008). The impact of professional isolation on teleworker job performance and turnover intentions: Does time spent teleworking, interacting face-to-face, or having access to communication-enhancing technology matter? Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 1412–1421.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gruter, M., & Masters, R. D. (1986). Ostracism as a social and biological phenomenon: An introduction. Ethology and Sociobiology, 7, 149–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hebl, M. R., Foster, J. B., Mannix, L. M., & Dovidio, J. F. (2002). Formal and interpersonal discrimination: A field study of bias toward homosexual applicants. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 815–825.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hebl, M., Madera, J. M., & King, E. (2008). Exclusion, avoidance, and social distancing. In K. M. Thomas (Ed.), Diversity resistance in organizations (pp. 127–150). New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates/Taylor & Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hitlan, R. T., Cliffton, R. J., & DeSoto, M. C. (2006). Perceived exclusion in the workplace: The moderating effects of gender on work-related attitudes and psychological health. North American Journal of Psychology, 8, 217–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hitlan, R. T., Kelly, K. M., Schepman, S., Schneider, K. T., & Zárate, M. A. (2006). Language exclusion and the consequences of perceived ostracism in the workplace. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 10, 56–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hitlan, R. T., & Noel, J. (2009). The influence of workplace exclusion and personality on counterproductive work behaviours: An interactionist perspective. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 18, 477–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jamieson, J. P., Harkins, S. G., & Williams, K. D. (2010). Need threat can motivate performance after ostracism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 690–702.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johns, G. (2006). The essential impact of context on organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review, 31, 386–408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kidwell, R. E., Mossholder, K. W., & Bennett, N. (1997). Cohesiveness and organizational citizenship behavior: A multilevel analysis using work groups and individuals. Journal of Management, 23, 775–793.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, E. B., Shapiro, J. R., Hebl, M. R., Singletary, S. L., & Turner, S. (2006). The stigma of obesity in customer service: A mechanism for remediation and bottom-line consequences of interpersonal discrimination. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 579–593.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kotsou, I., Nelis, D., Grégoire, J., & Mikolajczak, M. (2011). Emotional plasticity: Conditions and effects of improving emotional competence in adulthood. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 827–839.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kouchaki, M., & Wareham, J. (2015). Excluded and behaving unethically: Social exclusion, physiological responses, and unethical behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 547–556.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kurzban, R., & Leary, M. R. (2001). Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: The functions of social exclusion. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 187–208.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leiter, M. P., Laschinger, H. K. S., Day, A., & Oore, D. G. (2011). The impact of civility interventions on employee social behavior, distress, and attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 1258–1274.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, J., Kwan, H. K., Lee, C., & Hui, C. (2013). Work-to-family spillover effects of workplace ostracism: The role of work-home segmentation preferences. Human Resource Management, 52, 75–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madera, J. M., & Hebl, M. R. (2013). Social exclusion of individuals through interpersonal discrimination. In C. N. DeWall (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of social exclusion (pp. 55–64). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maner, J. K., DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., & Schaller, M. (2007). Does social exclusion motivate interpersonal reconnection? Resolving the “porcupine problem”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 42–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, G. W., Michaels, C. E., & Mulki, J. P. (2007). Workplace isolation: Exploring the construct and its measurement. Psychology and Marketing, 24, 195–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslach, C., Leiter, M. P., & Jackson, S. E. (2012). Making a significant difference with burnout interventions: Researcher and practitioner collaboration. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33, 296–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators (pp. 3–31). New York, NY: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mok, A., & De Cremer, D. (2016). The bonding effect of money in the workplace: Priming money weakens the negative relationship between ostracism and prosocial behaviour. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 25, 272–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naraine, M. D., & Lindsay, P. H. (2011). Social inclusion of employees who are blind or low vision. Disability and Society, 26, 389–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Near, J. P., & Miceli, M. P. (1985). Organizational dissidence: The case of whistle-blowing. Journal of Business Ethics, 4, 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nordgren, L. F., Banas, K., & MacDonald, G. (2011). Empathy gaps for social pain: Why people underestimate the pain of social suffering. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 120–128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Reilly, C. A., III, Caldwell, D. F., & Barnett, W. P. (1989). Work group demography, social integration, and turnover. Administrative Science Quarterly, 34, 21–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Reilly, J., & Robinson, S. (2010, August). Is it something I did? How attributions impact the experience of ostracism. Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Conference, Montreal, QC, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Reilly, J., Robinson, S. L., Berdahl, J. L., & Banki, S. (2015). Is negative attention better than no attention? The comparative effects of ostracism and harassment at work. Organization Science, 26, 774–793.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osatuke, K., Moore, S. C., Ward, C., Dyrenforth, S. R., & Belton, L. (2009). Civility, respect, engagement in the workforce (CREW): Nationwide organization development intervention at veterans health administration. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 45, 384–410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penhaligon, N. L., Louis, W. R., & Restubog, S. L. D. (2009). Emotional anguish at work: The mediating role of perceived rejection on workgroup mistreatment and affective outcomes. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14, 34–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2003). Trait emotional intelligence: Behavioural validation in two studies of emotion recognition and reactivity to mood induction. European Journal of Personality, 17, 39–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pillutla, M. M., & Thau, S. (2009). Actual and potential exclusion as determinants of individuals’ unethical behavior in groups. In D. De Cremer (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on ethical behavior and decision making (pp. 121–134). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poon, K. T., Chen, Z., & DeWall, C. N. (2013). Feeling entitled to more: Ostracism increases dishonest behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 1227–1239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poulsen, J. R. (2006). Coping with social ostracism: How differences in coping strategies and aspects of the situation influence outcomes for targets of ostracism. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rayner, C., & Hoel, H. (1997). A summary review of literature relating to workplace bullying. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 7, 181–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riva, P., Williams, K. D., Torstrick, A. M., & Montali, L. (2014). Orders to shoot (a camera): Effects of ostracism on obedience. The Journal of Social Psychology, 154, 208–216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberson, Q. M. (2006). Disentangling the meanings of diversity and inclusion in organizations. Group and Organization Management, 31, 212–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, S. L., O’Reilly, J., & Wang, W. (2013). Invisible at work: An integrated model of workplace ostracism. Journal of Management, 39, 203–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudman, L. A. (1998). Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 629–645.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schachter, S., Ellertson, J., McBride, D., & Gregory, D. (1951). An experimental study of cohesiveness and productivity. Human Relations, 4, 229–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schriesheim, J. F. (1980). The social context of leader-subordinate relations: An investigation of the effects of group cohesion. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 183–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, K. L., & Duffy, M. K. (2015). Antecedents of workplace ostracism: New directions in research and intervention. In P. L. Perrewé, J. R. B. Halbesleben, & C. C. Rosen (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well-being (Vol. 13, pp. 137–165). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, K. L., Restubog, S. L. D., & Zagenczyk, T. J. (2013). A social exchange-based model of the antecedents of workplace exclusion. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 37–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, K. L., Tams, S., Schippers, M. C., & Lee, K. (2015). Opening the black box: Why and when workplace exclusion affects social reconnection behaviour, health, and attitudes. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 24, 239–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, K. L., & Thau, S. (2013). Theory and research on social exclusion in work groups. In C. N. DeWall (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of social exclusion (pp. 65–73). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, K. L., Zagenczyk, T. J., Schippers, M., Purvis, R. L., & Cruz, K. S. (2014). Co-worker exclusion and employee outcomes: An investigation of the moderating roles of perceived organizational and social support. Journal of Management Studies, 51, 1235–1256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shore, L. M., Randel, A. E., Chung, B. G., Dean, M. A., Ehrhart, K. H., & Singh, G. (2011). Inclusion and diversity in work groups: A review and model for future research. Journal of Management, 37, 1262–1289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singletary, S. L., & Hebl, M. R. (2009). Compensatory strategies for reducing interpersonal discrimination: The effectiveness of acknowledgments, increased positivity, and individuating information. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 797–805.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. (2013, July 25). How to deal with cliques at work. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/jacquelynsmith/2013/07/25/how-to-deal-with-cliques-at-work/.

  • Sommer, K. L., Williams, K. D., Ciarocco, N. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2001). When silence speaks louder than words: Explorations into the intrapsychic and interpersonal consequences of social ostracism. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 23, 225–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stroud, L. R., Tanofsky-Kraff, M., Wilfley, D. E., & Salovey, P. (2000). The Yale Interpersonal Stressor (YIPS): Affective, physiological, and behavioral responses to a novel interpersonal rejection paradigm. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 22, 204–213.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thau, S., Aquino, K., & Poortvliet, P. M. (2007). Self-defeating behaviors in organizations: The relationship between thwarted belonging and interpersonal work behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 840–847.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thau, S., Derfler-Rozin, R., Pitesa, M., Mitchell, M. S., & Pillutla, M. M. (2015). Unethical for the sake of the group: Risk of social exclusion and pro-group unethical behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 98–113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Stucke, T. S. (2001). If you can’t join them, beat them: Effects of social exclusion on aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1058–1069.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board. (2011). Blowing the whistle: Barriers to federal employees making disclosures. Retrieved from http://www.mspb.gov/studies/browsestudies.htm.

  • Vohs, K. D., Baumeister, R. F., & Chin, J. (2007). Feeling duped: Emotional, motivational, and cognitive aspects of being exploited by others. Review of General Psychology, 11, 127–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warburton, W. A., Williams, K. D., & Cairns, D. R. (2006). When ostracism leads to aggression: The moderating effects of control deprivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 213–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wasserman, I. C., Gallegos, P. V., & Ferdman, B. M. (2008). Dancing with resistance: Leadership challenges in fostering a culture of inclusion. In K. M. Thomas (Ed.), Diversity resistance in organizations (pp. 175–200). New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates/Taylor & Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waytz, A., Chou, E. Y., Magee, J. C., & Galinsky, A. D. (2015). Not so lonely at the top: The relationship between power and loneliness. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 130, 69–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesselmann, E. D., Cardoso, F. D., Slater, S., & Williams, K. D. (2012). To be looked at as though air: Civil attention matters. Psychological Science, 23, 166–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D. (1997). Social ostracism. In R. M. Kowalski (Ed.), Aversive interpersonal behaviors (pp. 133–170). New York, NY: Plenum Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D. (2007). Ostracism. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 425–452.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K. T., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the Internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 748–762.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D., & Govan, C. L. (2005). Reacting to ostracism: Retaliation or reconciliation. In D. Abrams, M. A. Hogg, & J. M. Marques (Eds.), The social psychology of inclusion and exclusion (pp. 47–62). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D., & Sommer, K. L. (1997). Social ostracism by one’s coworkers: Does rejection lead to loafing or compensation? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 693–706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wirth, J. H., Sacco, D. F., Hugenberg, K., & Williams, K. D. (2010). Eye gaze as relational evaluation: Averted eye gaze leads to feelings of ostracism and relational devaluation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 869–882.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, L. Z., Ferris, D. L., Kwan, H. K., Chiang, F., Snape, E., & Liang, L. H. (2015). Breaking (or making) the silence: How goal interdependence and social skill predict being ostracized. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 131, 51–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, E., Huang, X., & Robinson, S. L. (2015). When self-view is at stake: Responses to ostracism through the lens of self-verification theory. Journal of Management. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1177/0149206314567779.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zellars, K. L., & Tepper, B. J. (2003). Beyond social exchange: New directions for organizational citizenship behavior theory and research. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 22, 395–424.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, X., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). The symbolic power of money: Reminders of money after social distress and physical pain. Psychological Science, 20, 700–706.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jane O’Reilly .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

O’Reilly, J., Banki, S. (2016). Research in Work and Organizational Psychology: Social Exclusion in the Workplace. In: Riva, P., Eck, J. (eds) Social Exclusion. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33033-4_7

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics