Abstract
Over the past 50 years, family structures have become more flexible. Unwed parenthood has become an important feature of our society, and most young parents want to have stable relationships, regardless of their marital status. This chapter examines young unmarried couples’ psychological and interpersonal risk and protective factors across the transition to parenthood, with a focus on predicting postpartum depression (PPD) and couples’ relationship security. We found that the risks for depression and relationship security were interrelated. For example, expectant mothers who reported prenatal depression were at increased risk for postpartum depression, but that risk was diminished if a mother’s relationship with the father of the child felt secure. Mothers were also at increased risk for postpartum depression if, during her pregnancy, both she and her partner engaged in high rates of hostility or low rates of warm communications. Additionally, analyses designed to assess if communication behaviors between young expectant parents moderated their adjustment to parenthood indicated that higher rates of hostile communication increased the risk for postpartum depression in mothers and increased the risk for relationship insecurity in fathers. Based on these findings, we make some recommendations regarding a relationship-focused approach to perinatal care.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Alexander, L. A., Le, H.-N., De La Fey Rodriguez Munoz, M., & Perry, D. F. (2014). The latent symptom structure of the Beck depression inventory: In Latina pregnant women. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 18(5), 1132–1141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-013-1343-5.
Beck, C. T. (2001). Predictors of postpartum depression: An update. Nursing Research, 50(5), 275–285. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006199-200109000-00004.
Beck, C. T. (2006). Postpartum depression: It isn’t just the blues. AJN The American Journal of Nursing, 106(5), 40–50. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000446-200605000-00020.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Beck depression inventory. https://doi.org/10.1037/t00742-000.
Betancourt, T. S., & Khan, K. T. (2008). The mental health of children affected by armed conflict: Protective processes and pathways to resilience. International Review of Psychiatry, 20(3), 317–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540260802090363.
Bouchard, G. (2005). Adult couples facing a planned or an unplanned pregnancy: Two realities. Journal of Family Issues, 26(5), 619–637. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X94272756.
Bowlby, J. (2008). Attachment. Basic Books.
Brown, S. L., Manning, W. D., & Payne, K. K. (2017). Relationship quality among cohabiting versus married couples. Journal of Family Issues, 38(12), 1730–1753. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x15622236.
Burgess Moser, M., Johnson, S. M., Dalgleish, T. L., Lafontaine, M. F., Wiebe, S. A., & Tasca, G. A. (2016). Changes in relationship-specific attachment in emotionally focused couple therapy. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 42(2), 231–245. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12139.
Cameron, E. E., Sedov, I. D., & Tomfohr-Madsen, L. M. (2016). Prevalence of paternal depression in pregnancy and the postpartum: An updated meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 206, 189–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.07.044.
Carlson, M. J., & McLanahan, S. S. (2010). Fathers in fragile families. In M. E. Lamb & M. E. Lamb (Eds.), The role of the father in child development (pp. 241–269). Hoboken: Wiley.
Carlson, M. J., Pilkauskas, N. V., McLanahan, S. S., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2011). Couples as partners and parents over children’s early years. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73(2), 317–334. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00809.x.
Committee on Obstetric Practice. (2015). Screening for perinatal depression. Committee Opinion No. 630. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 125, 1268–1711. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aog.0000465192.34779.dc.
Cunradi, C. B., Caetano, R., Clark, C., & Schafer, J. (2000). Neighborhood poverty as a predictor of intimate partner violence among White, Black, and Hispanic couples in the United States: A multilevel analysis. Annals of Epidemiology, 10(5), 297–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1047-2797(00)00052-1.
Davila, J., Capaldi, D. M., & La Greca, A. M. (2016). Adolescent/young adult romantic relationships and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy114.
Dozois, D. J., Dobson, K. S., & Ahnberg, J. L. (1998). A psychometric evaluation of the Beck Depression Inventory–II. Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 83. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.10.2.83.
Eddy, B., Poll, V., Whiting, J., & Clevesy, M. (2019). Forgotten fathers: Postpartum depression in men. Journal of Family Issues, 0192513X19833111. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x19833111.
Edin, K., & Kefalas, M. (2005). Promises I can keep. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Feeney, J., Alexander, R., Noller, P., & Hohaus, L. (2003). Attachment insecurity, depression, and the transition to parenthood. Personal Relationships, 10(4), 475–493. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1475-6811.2003.00061.x.
Field, T. (2018). Paternal prenatal, perinatal and postpartum depression: A narrative review. Journal of Anxiety & Depression, 1(1), 102.
Florsheim, P., & Benjamin, L. S. (2001). The structural analysis of social behavior observational coding scheme. In P. K. Kerig, K. M. Lindahl, P. K. Kerig, & K. M. Lindahl (Eds.), Family observational coding systems: Resources for systemic research (pp. 127–150). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Florsheim, P., & Moore, D. (2020). Lost and found: Young fathers in the age of unwed parenthood. New York: Oxford University Press.
Florsheim, P., Burrow-Sanchez, J. J., Minami, T., McArthur, L., Heavin, S., & Hudak, C. (2012). The young parenthood program: Supporting positive paternal engagement through coparenting counseling. American Journal of Public Health, 102(10), 1886–1892. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300902.
Fraley, R. C., Hudson, N. W., Heffernan, M. E., & Segal, N. (2015). Are adult attachment styles categorical or dimensional? A taxometric analysis of general and relationship-specific attachment orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(2), 354. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000027.
Gottman, J. M. (1993). The roles of conflict engagement, escalation, and avoidance in marital interaction: A longitudinal view of five types of couples. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006x.61.1.6.
Hames, J. L., Hagan, C. R., & Joiner, T. E. (2013). Interpersonal processes in depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 355–377. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185553.
Harkness, J. A., Van de Vijver, F. J., & Mohler, P. P. (2003). Cross-cultural survey methods (Vol. 325). Hoboken: Wiley-Interscience.
Hayes, A. F. (2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling. University of Kansas, KS.
Hazan, C., & Selcuk, E. (2015). Normative processes in romantic attachment: Introduction and overview. In Bases of adult attachment (pp. 3–8). New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-9622-9_1.
Lamb, K. A., Lee, G. R., & DeMaris, A. (2003). Union formation and depression: Selection and relationship effects. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65(4), 953–962. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00953.x.
Leathers, S. J., & Kelley, M. A. (2000). Unintended pregnancy and depressive symptoms among first-time mothers and fathers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(4), 523–531. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087671.
Matthey, S., Barnett, B., Ungerer, J., & Waters, B. (2000). Paternal and maternal depressed mood during the transition to parenthood. Journal of Affective Disorders, 60(2), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-0327(99)00159-7.
McClain, L. R. (2011). Better parents, more stable partners: Union transitions among cohabiting parents. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73(5), 889–901. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2011.00859.x.
McLanahan, S., Garfinkel, I., Mincy, R. B., & Donahue, E. (2010). Introducing the issue. The Future of Children, 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2010.0005.
Mikulincer, M., Florian, V., Cowan, P. A., & Cowan, C. P. (2002). Attachment security in couple relationships: A systemic model and its implications for family dynamics. Family Process, 41(3), 405–434. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2002.41309.x.
Millings, A., Walsh, J., Hepper, E., & O’Brien, M. (2013). Good partner, good parent: Responsiveness mediates the link between romantic attachment and parenting style. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(2), 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212468333.
Murry, V. M., Brown, P. A., Brody, G. H., Cutrona, C. E., & Simons, R. L. (2001). Racial discrimination as a moderator of the links among stress, maternal psychological functioning, and family relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(4), 915–926. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00915.x.
Ngu, L., & Florsheim, P. (2011). The development of relational competence among young high-risk fathers across the transition to parenthood. Family Process, 50(2), 184–202. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2011.01354.x.
Paley, B., Cox, M. J., Kanoy, K. W., Harter, K. S., Burchinal, M., & Margand, N. A. (2005). Adult attachment and marital interaction as predictors of whole family interactions during the transition to parenthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(3), 420. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.3.420.
Pape Cowan, C., & Cowan, P. (1997). Working with couples during stressful transitions. In S. Dreman (Ed.), The family on the threshold of the 21st century: Trends and implications (pp. 17–47). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Shrout, P. E., & Fleiss, J. L. (1979). Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychological Bulletin, 86(2), 420. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.420.
Simpson, J. A., Rholes, W. S., Campbell, L., Tran, S., & Wilson, C. L. (2003). Adult attachment, the transition to parenthood, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(6), 1172. https://doi.org/10.1037/e633872013-173.
Siu, A. L., Bibbins-Domingo, K., Grossman, D. C., Baumann, L. C., Davidson, K. W., Ebell, M., et al. (2016). Screening for depression in adults: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. JAMA, 315(4), 380–387. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.18392.
Sobolewski, J. M., & King, V. (2005). The importance of the coparental relationship for nonresident fathers’ ties to children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(5), 1196–1212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2005.00210.x.
Sockol, L. E. (2018). A systematic review and meta-analysis of interpersonal psychotherapy for perinatal women. Journal of Affective Disorders, 232, 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.01.018.
Sotskova, A., Woodin, E. M., & Gou, L. H. (2015). Hostility, flooding, and relationship satisfaction: Predicting trajectories of psychological aggression across the transition to parenthood. Aggressive Behavior, 41(2), 134–148. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21570.
Talbot, J. A., Baker, J. K., & McHale, J. P. (2009). Sharing the love: Prebirth adult attachment status and coparenting adjustment during early infancy. Parenting: Science and Practice, 9(1–2), 56–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295190802656760.
Wee, K. Y., Skouteris, H., Pier, C., Richardson, B., & Milgrom, J. (2011). Correlates of ante-and postnatal depression in fathers: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 130(3), 358–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.06.019.
Whisman, M. A., Davila, J., & Goodman, S. H. (2011). Relationship adjustment, depression, and anxiety during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(3), 375. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023790.
Wiebe, S. A., Johnson, S. M., Lafontaine, M. F., Burgess Moser, M., Dalgleish, T. L., & Tasca, G. A. (2017). Two-year follow-up outcomes in emotionally focused couple therapy: An investigation of relationship satisfaction and attachment trajectories. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 43(2), 227–244. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12206.
Williams, D. T. (2018). Parental depression and cooperative coparenting: A longitudinal and dyadic approach. Family Relations, 67(2), 253–269. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12308.
Wilson, S., & Durbin, C. E. (2010). Effects of paternal depression on fathers’ parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 167–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.10.007.
Wisner, K. L., Parry, B. L., & Piontek, C. M. (2002). Postpartum depression. New England Journal of Medicine, 347(3), 194–199. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmcp011542.
Acknowledgments
The work described in this chapter was supported by a grant from the Office of Population Affairs through the Adolescent Family Life Program. In addition to being grateful for this funding, we want to acknowledge the valued contributions of our research participants who agreed to share their experiences with us. We also appreciate the hard work of our research assistants who helped collect our data, particularly Rachel Reinders and Pablo Martins Navarro who painstakingly coded much of the video-recorded interaction data featured in this chapter.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Florsheim, P., Burrow-Sanchez, J. (2021). The Role of Prenatal Communication in Young Couples’ Depression and Relationship Security Across the Transition to Parenthood. In: Kuersten-Hogan, R., McHale, J.P. (eds) Prenatal Family Dynamics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51988-9_13
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51988-9_13
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-51987-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-51988-9
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)