Abstract
Resilience is a dynamic contextually bound process involving successful acquisition and use of culturally appropriate resources contributing to well-being despite encountering adversity. The mechanisms by which an individual reaches or maintains well-being are influenced by qualities unique to the individual, as well as by shared experiences, cultural aspects, and environmental factors. Refugees are people forced to flee their country of origin due to well-founded fear. Therefore, if they are to experience resilience, they must learn to navigate (access) and negotiate (advocate) for resources in multiple contexts (e.g., country of origin and new location). This chapter details an ecological framework for examining resilience in the context of refugee experiences. We present a study of resilience among Nepali-speaking Bhutanese refugees living in the USA. We interviewed 10 Nepali-speaking Bhutanese refugees about life in Bhutan (pre-flight), refugee camps in Nepal (flight), and the USA (post-flight), which revealed a holistic interconnected view of well-being (i.e., psychological, physical, social, and spiritual) that remained consistent across the three settings. The processes for regaining well-being despite adversity were context-dependent (e.g., Bhutan, assimilate into mainstream culture; refugee camps, work illegally for basic needs; the USA, learn and follow laws). We finish the chapter with conclusions and future directions for research in the context of refugee resettlement and other immigrant contexts.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alpak, G., Unal, A., Bulbul, F., Sagaltici, E., Bez, Y., Altindag, A., … Savas, H. A. (2015). Post-traumatic stress disorder among Syrian refugees in Turkey: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, 19(1), 45–50. https://doi.org/10.3109/13651501.2014.961930
Ao, T., Taylor, E., Lankau, E., Sivilli, T. I., Blanton, C., Shetty, S., … Geltman, P. (2012). An investigation into suicides among Bhutanese refugees in the US 2009–2012: Stakeholders report. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5–34.
Bornstein, M. H., & Cote, L. R. (2010). Immigration and acculturation. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of cultural developmental science (pp. 531–552). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis Group.
Boyden, J., & Mann, G. (2005). Children’s risk, resilience, and coping in extreme situations. In M. Ungar (Ed.), Handbook for working with children and youth: Pathways to resilience across cultures and contexts (pp. 3–26). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412976312.n1
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Center for Victims of Torture [CVT]. (2005). Healing the hurt: A guide for developing services for torture survivors. Minneapolis, MN: Center for Victims of Torture. Retrieved from http://www.cvt.org
Chase, L., & Sapkota, R. P. (2017). “In our community, a friend is a psychologist”: An ethnographic study of informal care in two Bhutanese refugee communities. Transcultural Psychiatry, 54(3), 400–422.
Coatsworth, J. D., Maldonado-Molina, M., Pantin, H., & Szapocznik, J. (2005). A person-centered and ecological investigation of acculturation strategies in Hispanic immigrant youth. Journal of Community Psychology, 33(2), 157–174. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20046
David, E. J. R., Okazaki, S., & Saw, A. (2009). Bicultural self-efficacy among college students: Initial scale development and mental health correlates. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(2), 211–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015419
Güngör, D., & Perdu, N. (2017). Resilience and acculturative pathways underlying psychological well-being of immigrant youth. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 56, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2016.10.005
Human Rights Watch. (2007). Bhutan/Nepal last hope: The need for durable solutions for Bhutanese refugees in Nepal and India. Human Rights Watch, 19(7), 1–87. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/reports/2007/bhutan0507/bhutan0507webwcover.pdf
Hutt, M. (1996). Ethnic nationalism, refugees and Bhutan. Journal of Refugee Studies, 9(4), 397–420. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/9.4.397
Hutt, M. (2003). Unbecoming citizens: Culture, nationhood, and the flight of refugees from Bhutan. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Kağitçibaşi, C. (2007). Family, self, and human development across cultures: Theory and applications (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kirmayer, L. J., Dandeneau, S., Marshall, E., Phillips, M. K., & Williamson, K. J. (2011). Rethinking resilience from indigenous perspectives. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56, 84–91.
Liebenberg, L., & Ungar, M. (Eds.). (2009). Researching resilience. Buffalo, NY: University of Toronto Press Incorporated.
MacQueen, K. M., McLellan, E., Kay, K., & Milstein, B. (1998). Codebook development for team-based qualitative analysis. Cultural Anthropology Methods, 10(2), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X980100020301
Murray, K. E., Davidson, G. R., & Schweitzer, R. D. (2010). Review of refugee mental health interventions following resettlement: Best practices and recommendations. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(4), 576–585. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01062.x
Porter, M., & Haslam, N. (2005). Predisplacement and postdisplacement factors associated with mental health of refugees and internally displaced persons: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 294(5), 602–612. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.294.5.602
Priebe, S., Giacco, D., & El-Nagib, R. (2016). Public health aspects of mental health among migrants and refugees: A review of the evidence on mental health care for refugees, asylum seekers and irregular migrants in the WHO European Region (Health Evidence Network Synthesis Report, No. 47). Copenhagen, Denmark: WHO Regional Office for Europe. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK391045/
QSR International Pty Ltd. (2012). NVivo qualitative data analysis software; Version 10.
Ranard, D. A. (2007). COR refugee backgrounder no. 4: Bhutanese refugees in Nepal. Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved from http://www.culturalorientation.net/learning/backgrounders
Ringhofer, M. (2002). Bhutanese refugees history and present situation with emphasis on education. Kyoto University Department of Lifelong Education and Libraries Graduate School of Education, 2, 43–72. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2433/43617
Rizal, T. N. (2010). Torture killing me softly: Bhutan through the eyes of a mind control victim (2nd ed.). D. Adhikari (Ed.).). Lalitpur, Nepal: Jagadamba Press.
Robinson, R. V. (2013). Pathways to resilience in the context of Somali culture and forced displacement (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (UMI No. 3591705). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com
Rudmin, F. (2009). Constructs, measurements and models of acculturation and acculturative stress. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(2), 106–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.12.001
Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (2010). Acculturation: When individuals and groups of different cultural backgrounds meet. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 472–481.
Schininà, G., Sharma, S., Gorbacheva, O., & Mishra, A. K. (2011). Who am I? Assessment of psychosocial needs and suicide risk factors among Bhutanese refugees in Nepal and after third country resettlement. International Organization for Migration. Retrieved from https://www.iom.int/files/live/sites/iom/files/What-We-Do/docs/Mental-Health-Assessment-Nepal_Final_11March.pdf
Shrestha, D. D. (2015, November 19). Resettlement of Bhutanese refugees surpasses 100,000 mark. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/564dded46.html
Steel, Z., Chey, T., Silove, D., Marnane, C., Bryant, R. A., & van Ommeren, M. (2009). Association of torture and other potentially traumatic events with mental health outcomes among populations exposed to mass conflict and displacement: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA, 302(5), 537–549. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.1132
Thapa, S. B., Van Ommeren, M., Sharma, B., de Jong, J. T. V. M., & Hauff, E. (2003). Psychiatric disability among tortured Bhutanese refugees in Nepal. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(11), 2032–2037. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.11.2032
Tol, W. A., Kohrt, B. A., Jordans, M. J. D., Thapa, S. B., Pettigrew, J., Upadhaya, N., & de Jong, J. T. V. M. (2010). Political violence and mental health: A multi-disciplinary review of the literature on Nepal. Social Science & Medicine, 70(1), 35–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.09.037
Turrini, G., Purgato, M., Ballette, F., Nosè, M., Ostuzzi, G., & Barbui, C. (2017). Common mental disorders in asylum seekers and refugees: Umbrella review of prevalence and intervention studies. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 11(1), 51–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-017-0156-0
Ungar, M. (2008). Resilience across cultures. The British Journal of Social Work, 38(2), 218–235. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcl343
Ungar, M. (Ed.). (2012). The social ecology of resilience: A handbook of theory and practice. New York, NY: Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
Ungar, M., Brown, M., Liebenberg, L., Othman, R., Kwong, W. M., Armstrong, M., & Gilgun, J. (2007). Unique pathways to resilience across cultures. Adolescence, 42(166), 287–310.
Ungar, M., & Liebenberg, L. (2011). Assessing resilience across cultures using mixed methods: Construction of the child and youth resilience measure. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 5(2), 126–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689811400607
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR]. (2015, February 02). UNHCR statistical yearbook 2013 (13th ed.). Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/54cf9bd69.html
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR]. (2017). Global trends: Forced displacement in 2016. Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/5943e8a34.pdf
Van Ommeren, M., de Jong, J. T. V. M., Sharma, B., Komproe, I., Thapa, S. B., & Cardeña, E. (2001). Psychiatric disorders among tortured Bhutanese refugees in Nepal. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58(5), 475–482. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.58.5.475
Vonnahme, L. A., Lankau, E. W., Ao, T., Shetty, S., & Cardozo, B. L. (2015). Factors associated with symptoms of depression among Bhutanese refugees in the United States. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 17(6), 1705–1714.
Acknowledgments
The research at the heart of this chapter would not have been possible without the help of Hari Kafle, Netra Dhakal, and Rachel Woods, Ph.D.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Spatrisano, J., Robinson, R.V., Eldridge, G.D., Rosich, R.M. (2020). Conceptualizing Refugee Resilience Across Multiple Contexts. In: Güngör, D., Strohmeier, D. (eds) Contextualizing Immigrant and Refugee Resilience. Advances in Immigrant Family Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42303-2_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42303-2_9
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-42302-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-42303-2
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)