Abstract
Research suggests that many educational phenomena depend on visuospatial processing, including science learning, multimedia interactions, visualizations, gesturing, and object manipulations. However, little is known about what specific abilities rely on visuospatial processing in any given learning scenario, including those about health and natural sciences. Moreover, it is also unclear which of these particular abilities is dependent on other variables such as cognitive load, interactivity, embodiment, and sex or gender. Consequently, we argue that measuring the abilities that comprise visuospatial processing will help to guide future research. In this chapter, we describe VAR (visuospatial adaptable resources), our recently developed battery of computer-based instruments to measure different spatial ability and visuospatial working memory tasks. The VAR battery includes two mental rotation tests, two spatial working memory instruments, two visual working memory tests, and a combination of dual visuospatial tasks of working memory. Notably, the instruments can be customized to meet the diverse needs of researchers and practitioners. Among the different options that can be adjusted, there is the inclusion of practices and instructions before the tests, the language of the instruments (English and Spanish), and the starting and ending difficulties. Also, a simple administrative Internet tool allows secure saving and retrieving of the data for further analysis.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ashkenazi, S., & Danan, Y. (2017). The role of mathematical anxiety and working memory on the performance of different types of arithmetic tasks. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 7, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2017.05.001.
Ashkenazi, S., & Shapira, S. (2017). Number line estimation under working memory load: Dissociations between working memory subsystems. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 8–9, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2017.09.001.
Atit, K., Shipley, T. F., & Tikoff, B. (2013). Twisting space: Are rigid and non-rigid mental transformations separate spatial skills? Cognitive Processing, 14(2), 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-013-0550-8.
Au, J., Sheehan, E., Tsai, N., Duncan, G. J., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2015). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(2), 366–377. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x.
Barrett, T. J., & Hegarty, M. (2016). Effects of interface and spatial ability on manipulation of virtual models in a STEM domain. Computers in Human Behavior, 65, 220–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.06.026.
Blalock, L. D., & McCabe, D. P. (2011). Proactive interference and practice effects in visuospatial working memory span task performance. Memory, 19(1), 83–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2010.537035.
Butler, T., Imperato-McGinley, J., Pan, H., Voyer, D., Cordero, J., Zhu, Y.-S., et al. (2006). Sex differences in mental rotation: Top–down versus bottom–up processing. NeuroImage, 32(1), 445–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.03.030.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., & Atit, K. (this volume). Different abilities controlled by visuospatial processing. In J. C. Castro-Alonso (Ed.), Visuospatial processing for education in health and natural sciences (pp. 23–51). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_2.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., & Fiorella, L. (this volume). Interactive science multimedia and visuospatial processing. In J. C. Castro-Alonso (Ed.), Visuospatial processing for education in health and natural sciences (pp. 145–173). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_6.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., & Jansen, P. (this volume). Sex differences in visuospatial processing. In J. C. Castro-Alonso (Ed.), Visuospatial processing for education in health and natural sciences (pp. 81–110). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_4.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., & Uttal, D. H. (2019). Spatial ability for university biology education. In S. Nazir, A.-M. Teperi, & A. Polak-Sopińska (Eds.), Advances in human factors in training, education, and learning sciences: Proceedings of the AHFE 2018 International Conference on Human Factors in Training, Education, and Learning Sciences (pp. 283–291). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93882-0_28.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., & Uttal, D. H. (this volume). Science education and visuospatial processing. In J. C. Castro-Alonso (Ed.), Visuospatial processing for education in health and natural sciences (pp. 53–79). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_3.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Ayres, P., & Paas, F. (2014). Learning from observing hands in static and animated versions of non-manipulative tasks. Learning and Instruction, 34, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.07.005.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Ayres, P., & Paas, F. (2015). The potential of embodied cognition to improve STEAM instructional dynamic visualizations. In X. Ge, D. Ifenthaler, & J. M. Spector (Eds.), Emerging technologies for STEAM education: Full STEAM ahead (pp. 113–136). New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02573-5_7.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Ayres, P., & Paas, F. (2016). Comparing apples and oranges? A critical look at research on learning from statics versus animations. Computers & Education, 102, 234–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.09.004.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Ayres, P., & Paas, F. (2018a). Computerized and adaptable tests to measure visuospatial abilities in STEM students. In T. Andre (Ed.), Advances in human factors in training, education, and learning sciences: Proceedings of the AHFE 2017 International Conference on Human Factors in Training, Education, and Learning Sciences (pp. 337–349). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60018-5_33.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Ayres, P., Wong, M., & Paas, F. (2018b). Learning symbols from permanent and transient visual presentations: Don’t overplay the hand. Computers & Education, 116, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.08.011.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Ayres, P., Wong, M., & Paas, F. (2019a). Visuospatial tests and multimedia learning: The importance of employing relevant instruments. In S. Tindall-Ford, S. Agostinho, & J. Sweller (Eds.), Advances in cognitive load theory: Rethinking teaching (pp. 89–99). New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429283895-8.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Wong, M., Adesope, O. O., Ayres, P., & Paas, F. (2019b). Gender imbalance in instructional dynamic versus static visualizations: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 31(2), 361–387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09469-1.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (this volume-a). Instructional visualizations, cognitive load theory, and visuospatial processing. In J. C. Castro-Alonso (Ed.), Visuospatial processing for education in health and natural sciences (pp. 111–143). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_5.
Castro-Alonso, J. C., Paas, F., & Ginns, P. (this volume-b). Embodied cognition, science education, and visuospatial processing. In J. C. Castro-Alonso (Ed.), Visuospatial processing for education in health and natural sciences (pp. 175–205). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_7.
Chen, O., Castro-Alonso, J. C., Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2018). Extending cognitive load theory to incorporate working memory resource depletion: Evidence from the spacing effect. Educational Psychology Review, 30(2), 483–501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-017-9426-2.
Choi, J., & L’Hirondelle, N. (2005). Object location memory: A direct test of the verbal memory hypothesis. Learning and Individual Differences, 15(3), 237–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2005.02.001.
Chu, M., & Kita, S. (2008). Spontaneous gestures during mental rotation tasks: Insights into the microdevelopment of the motor strategy. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137(4), 706–723. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013157.
Cornoldi, C., & Mammarella, I. C. (2008). A comparison of backward and forward spatial spans. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61(5), 674–682. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210701774200.
Courvoisier, D. S., Renaud, O., Geiser, C., Paschke, K., Gaudy, K., & Jordan, K. (2013). Sex hormones and mental rotation: An intensive longitudinal investigation. Hormones and Behavior, 63(2), 345–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.12.007.
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19(4), 450–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6.
Darling, S., Della Sala, S., Logie, R. H., & Cantagallo, A. (2006). Neuropsychological evidence for separating components of visuo–spatial working memory. Journal of Neurology, 253(2), 176–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-005-0944-3.
De Renzi, E., & Nichelli, P. (1975). Verbal and non-verbal short-term memory impairment following hemispheric damage. Cortex, 11(4), 341–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-9452(75)80026-8.
De Renzi, E., Faglioni, P., & Previdi, P. (1977). Spatial memory and hemispheric locus of lesion. Cortex, 13(4), 424–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-9452(77)80022-1.
Della Sala, S., Gray, C., Baddeley, A., Allamano, N., & Wilson, L. (1999). Pattern span: A tool for unwelding visuo–spatial memory. Neuropsychologia, 37(10), 1189–1199. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(98)00159-6.
Dougherty, M. R., Hamovitz, T., & Tidwell, J. W. (2016). Reevaluating the effectiveness of n-back training on transfer through the Bayesian lens: Support for the null. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(1), 306–316. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0865-9.
Doyle, R. A., Voyer, D., & Lesmana, M. (2016). Item type, occlusion, and gender differences in mental rotation. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 69(8), 1530–1544. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2015.1086807.
Eals, M., & Silverman, I. (1994). The Hunter-Gatherer theory of spatial sex differences: Proximate factors mediating the female advantage in recall of object arrays. Ethology and Sociobiology, 15(2), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095(94)90020-5.
Eielts, C., Pouw, W., Ouwehand, K., van Gog, T., Zwaan, R. A., & Paas, F. (2018). Co-thought gesturing supports more complex problem solving in subjects with lower visual working-memory capacity. Psychological Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-018-1065-9.
Ekstrom, R. B., French, J. W., Harman, H. H., & Dermen, D. (1976). Kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests. Princeton: Educational Testing Service.
Epting, L. K., & Overman, W. H. (1998). Sex-sensitive tasks in men and women: A search for performance fluctuations across the menstrual cycle. Behavioral Neuroscience, 112(6), 1304–1317. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.112.6.1304.
Fischer, M. H. (2001). Probing spatial working memory with the Corsi Blocks task. Brain and Cognition, 45(2), 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1006/brcg.2000.1221.
Foster, J. L., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Draheim, C., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2017). Do the effects of working memory training depend on baseline ability level? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(11), 1677–1689. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000426.
Garg, A. X., Norman, G., & Sperotable, L. (2001). How medical students learn spatial anatomy. The Lancet, 357(9253), 363–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)03649-7.
Giofrè, D., Donolato, E., & Mammarella, I. C. (2018). The differential role of verbal and visuospatial working memory in mathematics and reading. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 12, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2018.07.001.
Goldstein, D., Haldane, D., & Mitchell, C. (1990). Sex differences in visual-spatial ability: The role of performance factors. Memory & Cognition, 18(5), 546–550. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03198487.
Guillot, A., Champely, S., Batier, C., Thiriet, P., & Collet, C. (2007). Relationship between spatial abilities, mental rotation and functional anatomy learning. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 12(4), 491–507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-006-9021-7.
Guimarães, B., Firmino-Machado, J., Tsisar, S., Viana, B., Pinto-Sousa, M., Vieira-Marques, P., et al. (2019). The role of anatomy computer-assisted learning on spatial abilities of medical students. Anatomical Sciences Education, 12(2), 138–153. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.1795.
Gutierrez, J. C., Chigerwe, M., Ilkiw, J. E., Youngblood, P., Holladay, S. D., & Srivastava, S. (2017). Spatial and visual reasoning: Do these abilities improve in first-year veterinary medical students exposed to an integrated curriculum? Journal of Veterinary Medical Education, 44(4), 669–675. https://doi.org/10.3138/jvme.0915-158R3.
Hale, S., Rose, N. S., Myerson, J., Strube, M. J., Sommers, M., Tye-Murray, N., et al. (2011). The structure of working memory abilities across the adult life span. Psychology and Aging, 26(1), 92–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021483.
Hammond, A. G., Murphy, E. M., Silverman, B. M., Bernas, R. S., & Nardi, D. (2019). No environmental context-dependent effect, but interference, of physical activity on object location memory. Cognitive Processing, 20(1), 31–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-018-0875-4.
Hautzel, H., Mottaghy, F. M., Schmidt, D., Zemb, M., Shah, N. J., Müller-Gärtner, H.-W., et al. (2002). Topographic segregation and convergence of verbal, object, shape and spatial working memory in humans. Neuroscience Letters, 323(2), 156–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3940(02)00125-8.
Hegarty, M., & Sims, V. K. (1994). Individual differences in mental animation during mechanical reasoning. Memory & Cognition, 22(4), 411–430. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03200867.
Hegarty, M., Keehner, M., Khooshabeh, P., & Montello, D. R. (2009). How spatial abilities enhance, and are enhanced by, dental education. Learning and Individual Differences, 19(1), 61–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2008.04.006.
Heil, M., Jansen, P., Quaiser-Pohl, C., & Neuburger, S. (2012). Gender-specific effects of artificially induced gender beliefs in mental rotation. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(3), 350–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.01.004.
Imhof, B., Scheiter, K., & Gerjets, P. (2011). Learning about locomotion patterns from visualizations: Effects of presentation format and realism. Computers & Education, 57(3), 1961–1970. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.05.004.
Imhof, B., Scheiter, K., Edelmann, J., & Gerjets, P. (2012). How temporal and spatial aspects of presenting visualizations affect learning about locomotion patterns. Learning and Instruction, 22(3), 193–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.10.006.
Jang, S., Vitale, J. M., Jyung, R. W., & Black, J. B. (2017). Direct manipulation is better than passive viewing for learning anatomy in a three-dimensional virtual reality environment. Computers & Education, 106, 150–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.12.009.
Jansen, P., Zayed, K., & Osmann, R. (2016). Gender differences in mental rotation in Oman and Germany. Learning and Individual Differences, 51, 284–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.08.033.
Kalet, A. L., Song, H. S., Sarpel, U., Schwartz, R. N., Brenner, J., Ark, T. K., et al. (2012). Just enough, but not too much interactivity leads to better clinical skills performance after a computer assisted learning module. Medical Teacher, 34(10), 833–839. https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159X.2012.706727.
Kane, M. J., Hambrick, D. Z., Tuholski, S. W., Wilhelm, O., Payne, T. W., & Engle, R. W. (2004). The generality of working memory capacity: A latent-variable approach to verbal and visuospatial memory span and reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133(2), 189–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.133.2.189.
Keehner, M., Lippa, Y., Montello, D. R., Tendick, F., & Hegarty, M. (2006). Learning a spatial skill for surgery: How the contributions of abilities change with practice. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(4), 487–503. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1198.
Kessels, R. P. C., Postma, A., & de Haan, E. H. F. (1999). Object relocation: A program for setting up, running, and analyzing experiments on memory for object locations. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 31(3), 423–428. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03200721.
Kirchner, W. K. (1958). Age differences in short-term retention of rapidly changing information. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55(4), 352–358. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043688.
Kozhevnikov, M., & Thornton, R. (2006). Real-time data display, spatial visualization ability, and learning force and motion concepts. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 15(1), 111–132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-006-0361-0.
Kozhevnikov, M., Schloerb, D. W., Blazhenkova, O., Koo, S., Karimbux, N., Donoff, R. B., et al. (2013). Egocentric versus allocentric spatial ability in dentistry and haptic virtual reality training. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 27(3), 373–383. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.2915.
Lavric, A., Rippon, G., & Gray, J. R. (2003). Threat-evoked anxiety disrupts spatial working memory performance: An attentional account. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(5), 489–504. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1026300619569.
Lejbak, L., Crossley, M., & Vrbancic, M. (2011). A male advantage for spatial and object but not verbal working memory using the n-back task. Brain and Cognition, 76(1), 191–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2010.12.002.
Li, S.-C., Schmiedek, F., Huxhold, O., Röcke, C., Smith, J., & Lindenberger, U. (2008). Working memory plasticity in old age: Practice gain, transfer, and maintenance. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 731–742. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014343.
Loftus, J. J., Jacobsen, M., & Wilson, T. D. (2017). Learning and assessment with images: A view of cognitive load through the lens of cerebral blood flow. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(4), 1030–1046. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12474.
Lufler, R. S., Zumwalt, A. C., Romney, C. A., & Hoagland, T. M. (2012). Effect of visual–spatial ability on medical students’ performance in a gross anatomy course. Anatomical Sciences Education, 5(1), 3–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.264.
Masters, M. S. (1998). The gender difference on the Mental Rotations test is not due to performance factors. Memory & Cognition, 26(3), 444–448. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03201154.
Masters, M. S., & Sanders, B. (1993). Is the gender difference in mental rotation disappearing? Behavior Genetics, 23(4), 337–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01067434.
Mayer, R. E., & Sims, V. K. (1994). For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(3), 389–401. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.86.3.389.
McEvoy, L. K., Smith, M. E., & Gevins, A. (1998). Dynamic cortical networks of verbal and spatial working memory: Effects of memory load and task practice. Cerebral Cortex, 8(7), 563–574. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/8.7.563.
McGlone, M. S., & Aronson, J. (2006). Stereotype threat, identity salience, and spatial reasoning. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(5), 486–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2006.06.003.
Miller, D. I., & Halpern, D. F. (2013). Can spatial training improve long-term outcomes for gifted STEM undergraduates? Learning and Individual Differences, 26, 141–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.03.012.
Milner, B. (1971). Interhemispheric differences in the localization of psychological processes in man. British Medical Bulletin, 27(3), 272–277.
Minear, M., Brasher, F., Guerrero, C. B., Brasher, M., Moore, A., & Sukeena, J. (2016). A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only. Memory & Cognition, 44(7), 1014–1037. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-016-0616-9.
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Rettinger, D. A., Shah, P., & Hegarty, M. (2001). How are visuospatial working memory, executive functioning, and spatial abilities related? A latent-variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130(4), 621–640. https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-3445.130.4.621.
Moè, A., Jansen, P., & Pietsch, S. (2018). Childhood preference for spatial toys. Gender differences and relationships with mental rotation in STEM and non-STEM students. Learning and Individual Differences, 68, 108–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.10.003.
Nairne, J. S., VanArsdall, J. E., Pandeirada, J. N. S., & Blunt, J. R. (2012). Adaptive memory: Enhanced location memory after survival processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38(2), 495–501. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025728.
Nystrom, L. E., Braver, T. S., Sabb, F. W., Delgado, M. R., Noll, D. C., & Cohen, J. D. (2000). Working memory for letters, shapes, and locations: FMRI evidence against stimulus-based regional organization in human prefrontal cortex. NeuroImage, 11(5), 424–446. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2000.0572.
Örün, Ö., & Akbulut, Y. (2019). Effect of multitasking, physical environment and electroencephalography use on cognitive load and retention. Computers in Human Behavior, 92, 216–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.027.
Peters, M., & Battista, C. (2008). Applications of mental rotation figures of the Shepard and Metzler type and description of a mental rotation stimulus library. Brain and Cognition, 66(3), 260–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2007.09.003.
Peters, M., Laeng, B., Latham, K., Jackson, M., Zaiyouna, R., & Richardson, C. (1995). A redrawn Vandenberg and Kuse Mental Rotations Test: Different versions and factors that affect performance. Brain and Cognition, 28(1), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.1006/brcg.1995.1032.
Phillips, W. A., & Baddeley, A. (1971). Reaction time and short-term visual memory. Psychonomic Science, 22(2), 73–74. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03332500.
Pilegard, C., & Mayer, R. E. (2018). Game over for Tetris as a platform for cognitive skill training. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.04.003.
Postma, A., Jager, G., Kessels, R. P. C., Koppeschaar, H. P. F., & van Honk, J. (2004). Sex differences for selective forms of spatial memory. Brain and Cognition, 54(1), 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00238-0.
Pouw, W., Mavilidi, M.-F., van Gog, T., & Paas, F. (2016). Gesturing during mental problem solving reduces eye movements, especially for individuals with lower visual working memory capacity. Cognitive Processing, 17(3), 269–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-016-0757-6.
Resnick, I., & Shipley, T. F. (2013). Breaking new ground in the mind: An initial study of mental brittle transformation and mental rigid rotation in science experts. Cognitive Processing, 14(2), 143–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-013-0548-2.
Richardson, J. T. E. (2003). Howard Andrew Knox and the origins of performance testing on Ellis Island, 1912-1916. History of Psychology, 6(2), 143–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/1093-4510.6.2.143.
Roach, V. A., Fraser, G. M., Kryklywy, J. H., Mitchell, D. G. V., & Wilson, T. D. (2019). Guiding low spatial ability individuals through visual cueing: The dual importance of where and when to look. Anatomical Sciences Education, 12(1), 32–42. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.1783.
Rudkin, S. J., Pearson, D. G., & Logie, R. H. (2007). Executive processes in visual and spatial working memory tasks. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(1), 79–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210600587976.
Ruggiero, G., Sergi, I., & Iachini, T. (2008). Gender differences in remembering and inferring spatial distances. Memory, 16(8), 821–835. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210802307695.
Sanchez, C. A. (2012). Enhancing visuospatial performance through video game training to increase learning in visuospatial science domains. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19(1), 58–65. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-011-0177-7.
Saryazdi, R., Bannon, J., Rodrigues, A., Klammer, C., & Chambers, C. G. (2018). Picture perfect: A stimulus set of 225 pairs of matched clipart and photographic images normed by mechanical Turk and laboratory participants. Behavior Research Methods, 50(6), 2498–2510. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-018-1028-5.
Schmiedek, F., Hildebrandt, A., Lövdén, M., Wilhelm, O., & Lindenberger, U. (2009). Complex span versus updating tasks of working memory: The gap is not that deep. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35(4), 1089–1096. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015730.
Schwaighofer, M., Bühner, M., & Fischer, F. (2016). Executive functions as moderators of the worked example effect: When shifting is more important than working memory capacity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(7), 982–1000. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000115.
Schwarb, H., Nail, J., & Schumacher, E. H. (2016). Working memory training improves visual short-term memory capacity. Psychological Research, 80(1), 128–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-015-0648-y.
Seufert, T., Schütze, M., & Brünken, R. (2009). Memory characteristics and modality in multimedia learning: An aptitude-treatment-interaction study. Learning and Instruction, 19(1), 28–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.01.002.
Shackman, A. J., Sarinopoulos, I., Maxwell, J. S., Pizzagalli, D. A., Lavric, A., & Davidson, R. J. (2006). Anxiety selectively disrupts visuospatial working memory. Emotion, 6(1), 40–61. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.6.1.40.
Shah, P., & Miyake, A. (1996). The separability of working memory resources for spatial thinking and language processing: An individual differences approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125(1), 4–27. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.125.1.4.
Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171(3972), 701–703. https://doi.org/10.2307/1731476.
Silverman, I., Choi, J., & Peters, M. (2007). The hunter-gatherer theory of sex differences in spatial abilities: Data from 40 countries. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36(2), 261–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-006-9168-6.
Smirni, P., Villardita, C., & Zappalà , G. (1983). Influence of different paths on spatial memory performance in the Block-Tapping Test. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 5(4), 355–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688638308401184.
So, W.-C., Shum, P. L.-C., & Wong, M. K.-Y. (2015). Gesture is more effective than spatial language in encoding spatial information. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68(12), 2384–2401. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2015.1015431.
Stephenson, C. L., & Halpern, D. F. (2013). Improved matrix reasoning is limited to training on tasks with a visuospatial component. Intelligence, 41(5), 341–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2013.05.006.
Stieff, M., & Uttal, D. H. (2015). How much can spatial training improve STEM achievement? Educational Psychology Review, 27(4), 607–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9304-8.
Stransky, D., Wilcox, L. M., & Dubrowski, A. (2010). Mental rotation: Cross-task training and generalization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 16(4), 349–360. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021702.
Stull, A. T., & Hegarty, M. (2016). Model manipulation and learning: Fostering representational competence with virtual and concrete models. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(4), 509–527. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000077.
Stull, A. T., Hegarty, M., & Mayer, R. E. (2009). Getting a handle on learning anatomy with interactive three-dimensional graphics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(4), 803–816. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016849.
Stull, A. T., Fiorella, L., Gainer, M. J., & Mayer, R. E. (2018a). Using transparent whiteboards to boost learning from online STEM lectures. Computers & Education, 120, 146–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.02.005.
Stull, A. T., Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2018b). An eye-tracking analysis of instructor presence in video lectures. Computers in Human Behavior, 88, 263–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.07.019.
Unsworth, N., Heitz, R. P., Schrock, J. C., & Engle, R. W. (2005). An automated version of the operation span task. Behavior Research Methods, 37(3), 498–505. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03192720.
Vandenberg, S. G., & Kuse, A. R. (1978). Mental rotations, a group test of three-dimensional spatial visualization. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 47(2), 599–604. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1978.47.2.599.
Voyer, D., & Hou, J. (2006). Type of items and the magnitude of gender differences on the Mental Rotations Test. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(2), 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/cjep2006010.
Vuoksimaa, E., Kaprio, J., Kremen, W. S., Hokkanen, L., Viken, R. J., Tuulio-Henriksson, A., et al. (2010). Having a male co-twin masculinizes mental rotation performance in females. Psychological Science, 21(8), 1069–1071. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610376075.
Wanzel, K. R., Hamstra, S. J., Anastakis, D. J., Matsumoto, E. D., & Cusimano, M. D. (2002). Effect of visual-spatial ability on learning of spatially-complex surgical skills. The Lancet, 359(9302), 230–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07441-X.
Wilson, L., Scott, J. H., & Power, K. G. (1987). Developmental differences in the span of visual memory for pattern. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5(3), 249–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1987.tb01060.x.
Wright, R., Thompson, W. L., Ganis, G., Newcombe, N. S., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2008). Training generalized spatial skills. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15(4), 763–771. https://doi.org/10.3758/PBR.15.4.763.
Wu, Y. C., & Coulson, S. (2014). Co-speech iconic gestures and visuo-spatial working memory. Acta Psychologica, 153, 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.09.002.
Wu, S. P. W., & Rau, M. A. (2018). Effectiveness and efficiency of adding drawing prompts to an interactive educational technology when learning with visual representations. Learning and Instruction, 55, 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.09.010.
Acknowledgments
Support from PIA–CONICYT Basal Funds for Centers of Excellence Project FB0003, and CONICYT Fondecyt 11180255, is gratefully acknowledged. The first author is thankful to Mariana Poblete and Monserratt Ibáñez for their assistance, and to Mauricio Barrios and Juan Pablo Torres for helping with the illustrations.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Castro-Alonso, J.C., Ayres, P., Paas, F. (2019). VAR: A Battery of Computer-Based Instruments to Measure Visuospatial Processing. In: Castro-Alonso, J. (eds) Visuospatial Processing for Education in Health and Natural Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-20968-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-20969-8
eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)