Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

  • Chapter
Comprehensive Handbook of Psychopathology

Abstract

Although post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a relatively recent entry in the official psychiatric nosology, the association between exposure to extreme events and the subsequent appearance of psychiatric symptoms has not gone unnoticed historically. For example, Saigh (1991) reported that the seventeenth-century diary of Samuel Pepys, a survivor of the Great Fire of London, includes vivid descriptions of powerful intrusive recollections, nightmares, and sleep disturbance related to the fire.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Abueg, F. R., & Fairbank, J. A. (in press). Behavioral treatment of PTSD and co-occurring substance abuse. In P. A. Saigh (Ed.), Post-traumatic stress disorder: A behavioral approach to assessment and treatment. New York: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1952). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (1st ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1968). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Archibald, H. C., & TUddenham, R. D. (1965). Persistent stress reaction after combat: A 20-year follow-up. Archives of General Psychiatry, 12, 475–481.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Atkeson, B. M., Calhoun, K. S., Resick, P A., & Ellis, E. M. (1982). Victims of rape: Repeated assessment of depressive symptoms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 96–102.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, D. H., & Wolfe, B. E. (1981). Behavioral approaches to anxiety disorders: A report on the NIMH-SUNY Albany research conference. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, 448–454.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561–571.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bergman, M. S., & Jucovy, M. C. (Eds.). (1982). Generation of the Holocaust. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berman, S., Price, S., & Gusman, E (1982). An inpatient program for Vietnam combat veterans in a Veterans Administration hospital. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 33, 919–922.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blake, D. D., Weathers, E W., Nagy, L. M., Kaloupek, D. G., Klauminzer, G., Charney, D. S., & Keane, T. M. (1990). A clinician rating scale for assessing current and lifetime PTSD: The CAPS-1. Behavior Therapist, 13, 187–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, E. B., Gerardi, R. J., Kolb, L. C., & Barlow, D. H. (1986). The utility of the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS) in the diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in Vietnam veterans. Behavior Research and Therapy, 24, 577–580.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, E. B., Kolb, L. C., Pallmeyer, T. P., & Gerardi, R. J. (1982). The development of a psychophysiological assessment procedure for post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Psychiatric Quarterly, 4, 220–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boudewyns, P A., & Hyer, T. (1990). Physiological response to combat memories and preliminary treatment outcome in Vietnam veteran PTSD patients treated with direct therapeutic exposure. Behavior Therapy, 21, 63–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boudewyns, P A., & Shipley, R. H. (1983). Flooding and implosive therapy. New York: Plenum.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., Andreski, P., & Peterson, E. (1991). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 216–222.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brett, E. A., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (1988). DSM-III-R criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 1232–1236.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brodsky, L., Doerman, A. L., Palmer, L. S., Slade, G. F., & Munasifi, F. A. (1987). Post-traumatic stress disorder: A trimodal approach. Psychiatric Journal of the University of Ottawa, 12, 41–46.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brom, D., Kleber, R. J., & Defares, P B. (1989). Brief psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 607–612.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bromet, E. J., Parkinson, D. K., Schulberg, H. C., Dunn, L. O., & Gondek, P. C. (1982). Mental health of residents near the Three Mile Island reactor: A comparative study of selected groups. Journal of Preventive Psychiatry, 1, 225–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, P. C. (1984). Legacies of a war: Treatment considerations with Vietnam veterans and their families. Social Work, pp. 372–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. A., Abueg, E R., & Fairbank, J. A. (in press). Patterns of adjustment following exposure to extreme events: Psychological aftermath of combat and sexual assault. In M. S. Gibbs, J. R. Lachenmeyer, & J. Sigal (Eds.), Community psychology and mental health. New York: Gardner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, A. W., & Holmstrom, L. L. (1974). Rape: Victims of crisis. Bowie, MD: Robert J. Brady.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, A. W., & Holmstrom, L. L. (1979). Adaptive strategies and recovery from rape. American Journal of Psychiatry, 136, 1278–1282.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caddell, J. M., & Drabman, R. S. (in press). Post-traumatic stress disorder in children. In R. T. Ammerman & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of behavior therapy with children and adults: A longitudinal perspective. Needham, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caddell, J. M., Fairbank, J. A., Schienger, W. E., Jordan, B. K., & Weiss, D. S. (1991, August). Psychometric properties of a spouse/partner version of the Mississippi Scale for Combatrelated PTSD. Paper presented at American Psychological Association annual convention, San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, E. M., Rueger, D. B., Foy, D. W., & Donahoe, C. P., Jr. (1985). Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: Analysis of marital and cohabitating adjustment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94, 329–337.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • CenteÅ•s for Disease Control Vietnam Experience Study. (1988). Health status of Vietnam veterans: I. Psychosocial characteristics. Journal of the American Medical Association, 259, 2701–2707.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chemtob, C. M., Hamada, R. S., Roitblat, H. L., Muraoka, M. Y., & Pelowski, S. R. (1991). Anger, impulsivity, and anger control in combat-related PTSD. Unpublished manuscript.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chemtob, C., Roitblat, H. L., Hamada, R. S., Carlson, J. G., & TWentyman, C. T. (1988). A cognitive action theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 2, 253–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, L. J., & Roth, S. (1987). The psychological aftermath of rape: Long-term effects and individual differences in recovery. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 5, 525–534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, N. A., & Clum, G. A. (1989). Imaginal flooding as a supplementary treatment for PTSD in combat veterans: A controlled study. Behavior Therapy, 20, 381–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Danieli, Y. (1985). The treatment and prevention of long-term effects and intergenerational transmission of victimization: A lesson from Holocaust survivors and their children. In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Trauma and its wake. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, J. R. T., & Foa, E. B. (1991). Refining criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 42, 259–261.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, J., Kudler, H., Smith, R., Mahorney, S. L., Lipper, S., Hammett, E., Saunders, W. B., & Cavenar, J. O. (1990). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder with amitriptyline and placebo. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 259–266.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, J., Smith, R., & Kudler, H. (1989). Familial psychiatric illness in chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 30, 339–345.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R. (1977). SCL-90-R: Administration, scoring, and procedures manual (2nd ed.). Towson, MD: Clinical Psychometric Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeWitt, K. N. (1990). Psychological interventions for responses to stressful life events. California Psychologist, 22, pp. 4, 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • DiNardo, P A., Barlow, D. H., Cerny, J., Vermilyea, B. B., Vermilyea, J. A., Himadi, W., & Waddell, M. (1985). Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule-Revised (ADIS-R). Albany: Phobia and Anxiety Disorders Clinic, State University of New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egendorf, A. (1982). The postwar healing of Vietnam veterans: Recent research. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 33, 901–908.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Egendorf, A., Kadushin, C., Laufer, R. S., Rothbart, G., & Sloan, L. (1981). Legacies of Vietnam: Comparative adjustment of veterans and their peers. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ergood, J., Frank, E., Holroyd, K., Anderson, B., Hughes, C., West, D., & Kendall, K. (1985, November). Coping and postrape symptomatology. Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fairbank, J. A. (1989). Chronic combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. In A. M. Nezu & C. M. Nezu (Eds.), Clinical decision making in behavior therapy: A problem solving perspective. Champaign, IL: Research Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fairbank, J. A., & Brown, T. A. (1987). Current behavioral approaches to the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapist, 10, 57–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fairbank, J. A., DeGood, D. E., & Jenkins, C. W. (1981). Behavioral treatment of a persistent post-traumatic startle response. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 12, 321–324.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fairbank, J. A., Hansen, D. J., & Fitterling, J. M. (1991). Patterns of appraisal and coping across different stressor conditions among former prisoners of war with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 274–281.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fairbank, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1982). Flooding for combatrelated stress disorders: Assessment of anxiety reduction across traumatic memories. Behavior Therapy, 13, 499–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fairbank, J. A., Keane, T. M., & Malloy, P. M. (1983). Some preliminary data on the psychological characteristics of Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 912–919.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fairbank, J. A., & Nicholson, R. A. (1987). Theoretical and empirical issues in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 44–55.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Figley, C. R. (Ed.). (1978). Stress disorders among Vietnam veterans: Theory, research, and treatment. New York: Brunner/ Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Figley, C. R. (1983). Catastrophe: An overview of family reactions. In C. R. Figley & H. I. McCubbin (Eds.), Stress and the family: Vol. II. Coping with catastrophe (pp. 3–20). New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Figley, C. R. (1988). A five-phase treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in families. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 1, 127–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, R., Baum, A., & Singer, J. (1984). Toward an integrative approach to the study of stress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 939–949.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Rothbaum, B. O., Riggs, D. S., & Murdock, T. B. (in press). Treatment of PTSD in rape victims: A comparison between cognitive-behavioral procedures and counseling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Steketee, G., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1989). Behavioral/ cognitive conceptualizations of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 20, 155–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foy, D. W., & Card, J. J. (1987). Combat-related post-traumatic stress etiology: Replicated findings in a national sample of Vietnam-era men. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 28–31.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foy, D. W., Carroll, E. M., & Donahoe, C. P (1987). Etiological factors in the development of PTSD in clinical samples of Vietnam combat veterans. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 17–27.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foy, D. W., Osato, S. S., Houskamp, B. M., & Neumann, D. A. (in press). PTSD etiology. In P A. Saigh (Ed.), Post-traumatic stress disorder: A behavioral approach to assessment and treatment. New York: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foy, D. W., Resnick, H. S., Sipprelle, R. C., & Carroll, E. M. (1987). Premilitary, military, and postmilitary factors in the development of combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapist, 10, 3–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foy, D. W., Sipprelle, R. C., Rueger, D. B., & Carroll, E. M. (1984). Etiology of posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans: Analysis of premilitary, military and combat exposure influences. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 79–87.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frank, J. B., Kosten, T. R., Giller, E. L., & Dan, E. (1988). A randomized clinical trial of phenelzine and imipramine for posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 1289–1291.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frank, E., TUrner, S. M., Stewart, B. D., Jacob, M., & West, D. (1981). Past psychiatric symptoms and the response to sexual assault. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 22, 479–487.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, M. J. (1988). Toward rational pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: An interim report. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 281–285.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frye, J. S., & Stockton, R. A. (1982). Discriminant analysis of posttraumatic stress disorder among a group of Viet Nam veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 52–56.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Futterman, S., & Pumpian-Midlin, E. (1951). Traumatic war neuroses five years later. American Journal of Psychiatry, 108, 401–408.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gallers, J., Foy, D. W., & Donahoe, C. P (1985). Combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: An empirical investigation of traumatic violence exposure. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, J., True, W. R., Eisen, S. A., & Henderson, W. C. (1990). A twin study of the effects of the Vietnam war on posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of the American Medical Association, 263, 1227–1232.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. L., Grace, M. C., Lindy, J. P., Gleser, G. C., & Leonard, A. (1990). Risk factors for PTSD and other diagnoses in a general sample of Vietnam veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 729–733.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. L., Grace, M. C., Lindy, J. D., Gleser, G. C., Leonard, A. C., & Kramer, T. L. (1990). Buffalo Creek survivors in the second decade: Comparison with unexposed and nonlitigant groups. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1033–1050.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. L., Grace, M. C., Lindy, J. D., Titchener, J. L., & Lindy, J. G. (1983). Levels of functional impairment following a civilian disaster: The Beverly Hills supper club fire. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 573–580.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. L., Lindy, J. D., & Grace, M. C. (1988). Long-term coping with combat stress. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1, 399–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. L., Lindy, J. D., Grace, M. C., Gleser, G. C., Leonard, A. C., Korol, M., & Winget, C. (1990). Buffalo Creek survivors in the second decade: Stability of stress symptoms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60, 43–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hartsough, D. M., & Myers, D. G. (1985). Disaster work and mental health: Prevention and control of stress among workers. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hathaway, S. R., & McKinley, J. C. (1967). Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory: Manual for administration and scoring. New York: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helzer, J. E., Robins, L. N., & McEvoy, L. (1987). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the general population: Findings of the Epidemiologic Catchment Area survey. The New England Journal of Medicine, 317, 1630–1634.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, M. J. (1973). Phase oriented treatment of stress response syndromes. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 27, 506–515.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, M. (1974). Stress response syndromes: Character style and dynamic psychotherapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 31, 768–781.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, M. J. (1986). Stress-response syndromes: A review of posttraumatic and adjustment disorders. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 37, 241–249.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, M. J., & Kaltreider, N. B. (1980). Brief psychotherapy of stress response syndromes. In T. B. Karasu & L. Bellak (Eds.), Specialized techniques in individual psychotherapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, M. J., Mannar, C., Weiss, D. S., DeWitt, K. N., & Rosenbaum, R. (1984). Brief psychotherapy of bereavement reactions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 438–448.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, M. J., Wilner, N., & Alvarez, W. (1979). Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41, 209–218.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, J. C., & Barlow, D. H. (1990). The etiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 299–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan, B. K., Marmar, C. R., Fairbank, J. A., Schienger, W. E., Kulka, R. A., Hough, R. L., & Weiss, D. (in press). Problems in families of male Vietnam veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keane, T. M., Albano, A. M., & Blake, D. D. (in press). Current trends in the treatment of post-traumatic stress symptoms. In M. Basoglu (Ed.), Torture and its consequences. London: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keane, T. M., Caddell, J. M., & Taylor, K. L. (1988). Mississippi Scale for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Three studies in reliability and validity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 85–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keane, T. M., Fairbank, J. A., Caddell, J. M., & Zimering, R. T. (1989). Implosive (flooding) therapy reduces symptoms of PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans. Behavior Therapy, 20, 245–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keane, T. M., Fairbank, J. A., Caddell, J. M., Zimering, R. T., & Bender, M. E. (1985). A behavioral approach to assessing and treating posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Trauma and its wake: The study and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keane, T. M., Fairbank, J. A., Caddell, J. M., Zimering, R. T., Taylor, K. L., & Mora, C. A. (1989). Clinical evaluation of a measure to assess combat exposure. Psychological Assessment, 1, 53–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keane, T. M., Gerardi, R. J., Quinn, S. J., & Litz, B. T. (in press). Behavioral treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. In S. M. Hirner, K. S. Calhoun, & H. E. Adams, Handbook of clinical behavior therapy (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keane, T. M., & Kaloupek, D. G. (1982). Imaginal flooding in the treatment of a posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 138–140.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keane, T. M., Malloy, P. F., & Fairbank, J. A. (1984). Empirical development of an MMPI subscale for the assessment of combat-related posttraumatic stress disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 888–891.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keane, T. M., & Wolfe, J. (1990). Comorbidity in post-traumatic stress disorder: An analysis of community and clinical studies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1776–1788.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keane, T. M., Wolfe, J., & Taylor, K. L. (1987). Post-traumatic stress disorder: Evidence for diagnostic validity and methods of psychological assessment. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 32–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keane, T., Zimering, R., & Caddell, J. (1985). A behavioral formulation of posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Behavior Therapist, 8, 9–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keehn, R. J., Goldberg, I. E., & Beebe, G. W. (1974). Twentyfour-year mortality follow-up of Army veterans with disability separations for psychoneurosis in 1944. Psychosomatic Medicine, 32(1).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, D. G., Saunders, B. E., Veronen, L. J., Best, C. L., & Von, J. M. (1987). Criminal victimization: Lifetime prevalence, reporting to police, and psychological impact. Crime & Delinquency, 33, 479–489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, D. G., & Veronen, L. J. (1983). Treatment for raperelated problems: Crisis intervention is not enough. In L. H. Cohen, W. L. Claiborn, & G. A. Specter (Eds.), Crisis intervention. New York: Human Sciences Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, D. G., Veronen, L. J., & Resick, P A. (1979). Assessment of the aftermath of rape: Changing patterns of fear. Journal of Behavioral Assessment, 1, 133–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, N. J., Hamilton, D. I., & Ollendick, T. H. (1988). Childrenʹs phobias: A behavioral perspective. New York: John Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kipper, D. A. (1977). Behavior therapy for fears brought on by war experiences. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 216–221.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klonoff, H., McDougall, G., Clark, C., Kramer, P, & Horgan, J. (1976). The neuropsychological, psychiatric, and physical effects of prolonged and severe stress: 30 years later. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 163, 246–252.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kolb, L. C. (1986). Post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. New England Journal of Medicine, 314, 641–642.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koretzky, M. B., & Peck, A. H. (1990). Validation and crossvalidation of the PTSD subscale of the MMPI with civilian trauma victims. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46, 296–300.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krystal, J. H., Kosten, T. R., Southwick, S., Mason, J. W., Perry, B. D., & Giller, E. L. (1989). Neurobiological aspects of PTSD: Review of clinical and preclinical studies. Behavior Therapy, 20, 177–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuch, K., Swinson, R. P, & Kirby, M. (1985). Post-traumatic stress disorder after car accidents. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 30, 426–427.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kulka, R. A., Schienger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Hough, R. L., Jordan, B. K., Marmar, C. R., & Weiss, D. S. (1990). Trauma and the Vietnam War generation: Report of findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kulka, R. A., Schienger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Jordan, B. K., Hough, R. L., Marmar, C. R., & Weiss, D. S. (1991). Assessment of PTSD in the community: Prospects and pitfalls from recent studies of Vietnam veterans. Psychological Assessment, 3, 547–560.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lang, R J. (1977). The psychophysiology of anxiety. In H. Akiskal (Ed.), Psychiatric diagnosis: Exploration of biological criteria. New York: Spectrum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindy, J. D., Green, B. L., Grace, M., & Titchener, J. (1983). Psychotherapy with survivors of the Beverly Hills supper club fire. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 37, 593–610.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Litz, B. T., & Keane, T. M. (1989). Information processing in anxiety disorders: Application to the understanding of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 9, 243–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Litz, B. T., Penk, W. E., Gerardi, R. J., & Keane, T. M. (in press). The assessment of post-traumatic stress disorder. In P A. Saigh (Ed.), Post-traumatic stress disorder: A behavioral approach to assessment and treatment. New York: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malloy, P E, Fairbank, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1983). Validation of a multimethod assessment of PTSD in Vietnam veterans. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 488–494.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marmar, C. R., & Freeman, M. (1988). Brief dynamic psychotherapy of post-traumatic stress disorders: Management of narcissistic regression. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1, 323–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCaffrey, R. J., & Fairbank, J. A. (1985). Posttraumatic stress disorder associated with transportation accidents: Two case studies. Behavior Therapy, 16, 406–416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCahill, T. W., Meyer, L. C., & Fishman, A. M. (1979). The aftermath of rape. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFarlane, A. C. (1988). The aetiology of post-traumatic stress disorders following a natural disaster. British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 116–121.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McFarlane, A. C. (1989). The aetiology of post-traumatic morbidity: Predisposing, precipitating and perpetuating factors. British Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 221–228.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McFarlane, A. C. (1990). An Australian disaster: The 1983 bushfires. International Journal of Mental Health, 19, 36–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, W. R., Williams, M., & Bernstein, M. H. (1982). The effects of rape on marital and sexual adjustment. American Journal of Family Therapy, 10, 51–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moos, R., & Billings, A. (1982). Conceptualizing and measuring coping resources and processes. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nace, E. P, O’Brien, C. P., Mintz, J., Ream, N., & Meyers, A. L. (1978). Adjustment among Vietnam drug users two years postservice. In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Stress disorders among Vietnam veterans: Theory, research, and treatment. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nezu, A. M., & Carnevale, G. J. (1987). Interpersonal problem solving and coping reactions of Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 155–157.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • North, C. S., Smith, E. M., McCool, R. E., & Lightcap, P. E. (1989). Acute postdisaster coping and adjustment. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2, 353–360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ollendick, T. H. (1983). Reliability and validity of the Revised Fear Survey Schedule for children (FSSC-R). Behavior Research & Therapy, 21, 685–692.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ollendick, T. M., & Hersen, M. (1984). Child behavioral assessment. New York: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penk, W. E., Robinowitz, R., Roberts, W. R., Patterson, E. T., Dolan, M. P, & Atkins, H. G. (1981). Adjustment differences among male substance abusers varying in degree of combat experience in Vietnam. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, 426–437.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pitman, W. E., Orr, S. P., Forgue, D. F, de Jong, J. B., & Claiborne, J. M. (1987). Psychophysiologic assessment of post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam combat veterans. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 970–975.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R. S., Frederick, C., Nader, K., Arroyo, W., Steinberg, A., Eth, S., Nunez, F., & Fairbanks, L. (1987). Life threat and posttraumatic stress in school children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 1057–1063.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reist, C., Kauffmann, C. D., Haier, R. J., Sangdahl, C., DeMet, E. M., Chicz-DeMet, A., & Nelson, J. N. (1989, April). A controlled trial of desipramine in 18 men with posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 513–516.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Resick, P A., Jordan, C. G., Girelli, S. A., Hutter, C. K., & Marhoefer-Dvorak, S. (1988). A comparative outcome study of behavioral group therapy for sexual assault victims. Behavior Therapy, 19, 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. O. (1978). What I think and feel: A revised measure of children’s manifest anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6, 271–280.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Riley, W. T., Treiber, F A., & Woods, M. G. (1989). Anger and hostility in depression. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177, 668–674.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Riskind, J. H., Beck, A. T., Berchick, R. J., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1987). Reliability of DSM-IQ diagnoses for major depression and generalized anxiety disorder using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44 817–820.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, W. R., Penk, W. E., Gearing, M. L., Robinowitz, R., Dolan, M. P, & Patterson, E. T. (1982). Interpersonal problems of Vietnam combat veterans with symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91, 444–450.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenheck, R., & Nathan, P (1985). Secondary traumatization in children of Vietnam veterans. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 36, 538–539.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, S., & Cohen, L. J. (1986). Approach, avoidance, and coping with stress. American Psychologist, 41, 813–819.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rothbaum, B. O., & Foa, E. B. (in press). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. In P A. Saigh (Ed.), Post-traumatic stress disorder: A behavioral approach to assessment and treatment. New York: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rychtarik, R. G., Silverman, W. K., Van Landingham, W. P., & Prue, D. M. (1984). Treatment of an incest victim with implosive therapy: A case study. Behavior Therapy, 15, 410–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saigh, P A. (1987a). In vitro flooding of an adolescent’s posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 16, 147–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saigh, P A. (1987b). In vitro flooding of a childhood posttraumatic stress disorder. School Psychology Review, 16, 203–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saigh, P A. (1987c). In vitro flooding of childhood posttraumatic stress disorders: A systematic replication. Professional School Psychology, 2 135–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saigh, P A. (1989). The development and validation of the children’s posttraumatic stress disorder inventory. International Journal of Special Education, 4, 75–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saigh, P. A. (1991). History, current nosology, and epidemiology. In P A. Saigh (Ed.), Post-traumatic stress disorder: A behavioral approach to assessment and treatment. New York: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scurfield, R. M., Kenderdine, S. K., & Pollard, R. J. (1990). Inpatient treatment for war-related post-traumatic stress disorder: Initial findings on a longer-term outcome study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3, 185–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shalev, A., Bleich, A., & Ursano, R. J. (1990). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Somatic comorbidity and effort tolerance. Psychosomatics, 31, 197–203.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shestatzky, M., Greenberg, D., & Lerer, B. (1986). A controlled trial of phenelzine in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research, 24, 149–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shore, J. H., Tatum, E. L., & Vollmer, W. M. (1986). Evaluation of mental health effects of disaster, Mount St. Helens eruption. American Journal of Public Health, 76(Suppl.), 76–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sierles, F S., Chen, J.-J., McFarland, R. E., & Taylor, M. A. (1983). Posttraumatic stress disorder and concurrent psychiatric illness: A preliminary report. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 1177–1179.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sierles, E S., Chen, J.-J., Messing, M. L., Besyner, J. K., & Taylor, M. A. (1986). Concurrent psychiatric illness in non-Hispanic outpatients diagnosed as having posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174, 171–173.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Silver, J. M., Sandberg, D. P, & Hales, R. E. (1990). New approaches in the pharmacotherapy of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 51, 33–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, W. K., & Nelles, W. B. (1988). The Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 772–778.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E. M., North, C. S., McCool, R. E., & Shea, J. M. (1990). Acute postdisaster psychiatric disorders: Identification of persons at risk. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 202–206.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Snow, B. R., Stellman, J. M., Stellman, S. D., & Sommer, J. F. (1988). Post-traumatic stress disorder among American Legionnaires in relation to combat experience in Vietnam: Associated and contributing factors. Environmental Research, 47, 175–192.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, Z., Mikulincer, M., & Flum, H. (1988). Negative life events, coping responses, and combat-related psychopathology: A prospective study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 302–307.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, Z., Mikulincer, M., Fried, B., & Wosner, Y. (1987). Family characteristics and posttraumatic stress disorder: A follow-up of Israeli combat stress reaction casualties. Family Process, 26, 383–394.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sowder, B. J. (1985). Disasters and mental health: Selected contemporary perspectives. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. (1973). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. D. (1988). State-trait anger expression inventory: Research edition professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. E. (1970). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (self-evaluation questionnaire). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B., & Gibbon, M. (1987). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R, version NP-V. New York: Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Starkey, T. W., & Ashlock, L. (1986, November). Inpatient treatment of PTSD: Final results of the late, great Miami model. VA Practitioner, pp. 41–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stretch, R. H, (1985). Posttraumatic stress disorder among U.S. Army reserve Vietnam and Vietnam-era veterans. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 935–936.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sutker, P B., Allain, A. N., & Motsinger, P. A. (1988). Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)-derived psychopathology subtypes among former prisoners of war (POWs): Replication and extension. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 10, 129–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutker, P. B., Winstead, D. K., Galina, Z. H., & Allain, A. N. (1991). Cognitive deficits and psychopathology among former prisoners of war and combat veterans of the Korean conflict. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 67–72.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Verbosky, S. J., & Ryan, D. A. (1988). Female partners of Vietnam veterans: Stress by proximity. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 9, 95–104.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Veronen, L. J., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (1983). Stress management for rape victims. In D. Meichenbaum & M. E. Jaremko (Eds.), Stress reduction and prevention. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, C. G., Juba, M. P, Manifold, V., Kucala, T., & Anderson, P E. D. (1991). The PTSD interview: Rationale, description, reliability, and concurrent validity of a DSM-III-based technique. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47, 179–188.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, D. S., Horowitz, M. J., & Wilner, N. (1984). The Stress Response Rating Scale: A clinician’s measure for rating the response to serious life-events. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 23, 202–215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, J. P (1978). Identity, ideology, and crisis: The Vietnam veteran in transition (Vol. 2). Washington, DC: Disabled American Veterans.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winfield, I., George, L. K., Swartz, M., & Blazer, D. G. (1990). Sexual assault and psychiatric disorders among a community sample of women. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 335–341.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wirtz, P W., & Harrell, A. V. (1987). Effects of postassault exposure to attack-similar stimuli on long-term recovery of victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 10–16.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Worthington, E. R. (1977). Post-service adjustment and Vietnam era veterans. Military Medicine, 142, 865–866.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Social Research and Policy Analysis, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 27709-2194, USA

    John A. Fairbanks, William E. Schlenger, Juesta M. Caddell & M. Gail Woods

Authors
  1. John A. Fairbanks
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. William E. Schlenger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Juesta M. Caddell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. M. Gail Woods
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA

    Patricia B. Sutker

  2. University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA

    Henry E. Adams

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1993 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Fairbanks, J.A., Schlenger, W.E., Caddell, J.M., Woods, M.G. (1993). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. In: Sutker, P.B., Adams, H.E. (eds) Comprehensive Handbook of Psychopathology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-3008-4_8

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-3008-4_8

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-6310-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-3008-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation