Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Pandora’s Box: The Consequences of Low Self-Control into Adulthood

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Life-Course Criminology

Abstract

The current chapter evaluates the long-term consequences of low self-control in a broad, transdisciplinary way that demonstrates the stable, enduring, and unmistakable course of self-regulation from infancy through late adulthood. The long-term consequences of self-control are relatively stable across life, such that those with high levels of self-control benefit from it throughout their life, and those with low self-control display its negative features over their life span. I demonstrate the continuity of self-control by utilizing three relatively distinct literatures: (1) criminological research that articulates how self-control deficits contribute to antisocial development and criminal justice system noncompliance, (2) longitudinal research that explores the developmental course of self-control/self-regulation constructs across life stages, and (3) personality psychology research that sheds light on the stability and continuity of constructs directly relevant to self-control.

Chapter submitted for Chris L. Gibson and Marvin D. Krohn (Eds.), Handbook of life-course criminology. New York: Springer

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Although the nomological network of constructs broadly relating to self-regulation is similar, they are not the same. A main distinction among self-control measures is whether inhibitory or restraint processes (e.g., refraining from engaging in inappropriate, maladaptive, or antisocial behavior) or initiatory or approach processes (e.g., actively engaging in functional, prosocial conduct) are being considered. Although inhibitory and initiatory self-control are distinct, they are strongly correlated (see, de Ridder, de Boer, Lugtig, Bakker, & van Hooft, 2011). However, there is convergent validity among various measures of self-control. For instance, Duckworth and Kern (2011) meta-analyzed self-control measures among 282 samples and 33,564 participants and reported moderate convergent validity, mean effect size was r  =  0.27).

  2. 2.

    There is seemingly no downside to having high self-control (see, Baumeister & Alquist, 2009). For example, Tangney, Baumeister, and Boone (2004) examined an undergraduate sample and found that high self-control was associated with earning higher grades, experiencing higher self-esteem, having fewer psychiatric symptoms, drinking less alcohol, having better eating habits, having better interpersonal skills, enjoying better relationships, and being more emotionally healthy. In fact, there were no negative effects from having high self-control, such as feeling overly controlled.

  3. 3.

    There are dozens of measures of self-control including the Go/No-go Task where participants develop a prepotent motor response to a frequently appearing target, and then inhibit this response for a less-frequently appearing non-target; the Stroop Task where a previously overlearned response must be inhibited, the Reflection Task where a stimulus is presented and the participant must choose the correct response from very similar potential responses, and many others. Taken together, these measures produce data that illustrate the variation that exists for social/cognitive self-control, gratification delay, and executive functioning in the population.

  4. 4.

    Meta-analytic research makes this clear. Ruiz, Pincus, and Schinka (2008) meta-analyzed 63 samples of 15,331 participants and reported significant associations between conscientiousness and all of its facets to antisocial pathology, substance abuse pathology, and the comorbidity of antisocial and substance pathology. In a more recent meta-analytic review of 53 studies producing between 30 and 35 effect sizes for antisocial behavior and aggression, Jones, Miller, and Lynam (2011) reported significant mean effect sizes for all facets of conscientiousness to antisocial behavior and aggression. The largest effect sizes for antisocial behavior were dutifulness and deliberation. For aggression, these same facets had the largest effect sizes in addition to competence.

References

  • Barkley, R. A. (1997). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Alquist, J. L. (2009). Is there a downside to good self-control? Self and Identity, 8, 115–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beaver, K. M., DeLisi, M., Mears, D. P., & Stewart, E. (2009). Low self-control and contact with the criminal justice system in a nationally representative sample of males. Justice Quarterly, 26, 695–715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beaver, K. M., DeLisi, M., Vaughn, M. G., & Wright, J. P. (2010). The intersection of genes and neuropsychological deficits in the prediction of adolescent delinquency and low self-control. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 54, 22–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beaver, K. M., Wright, J. P., & DeLisi, M. (2007). Self-control as an executive function: Reformulating Gottfredson and Hirschi’s parental socialization thesis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 1345–1361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beaver, K. M., Wright, J. P., DeLisi, M., & Vaughn, M. G. (2008). Genetic influences on the stability of low self-control: Results from a longitudinal sample of twins. Journal of Criminal Justice, 36, 478–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benda, B. B. (2003). Survival analysis of criminal recidivism of boot camp graduates using elements from general and developmental explanatory models. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 89–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bogg, T., & Roberts, B. W. (2004). Conscientiousness and health-related behaviors: A meta-analysis of the leading behavioral contributors to morality. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 887–919.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buker, H. (2011). Formation of self-control: Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime and beyond. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16, 265–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casey, B. J., Somerville, L. H., Gotlib, I. H., Ayduk, O., Franklin, N. T., Askren, M. K., Jonides, J., Berman, M. G., Wilson, N. L., Teslovich, T., Glover, G., Zayas, V., Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (2011). Behavioral and neural correlates of delay of gratification 40 years later. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 14998–15003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO-PR-R) and NEO five-factor inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Li, S. (2005). Race, self-control, and drug problems among jail inmates. Journal of Drug Issues, 35, 645–664.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeLisi, M. (2011). Self-control theory: The Tyrannosaurus rex of criminology is poised to devour criminal justice. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39, 103–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeLisi, M., Beaver, K. M., Vaughn, M. G., Trulson, C. R., Kosloski, A. E., Drury, A. J., & Wright, J. P. (2010). Personality, gender, and self-control theory revisited: Results from a sample of institutionalized juvenile delinquents. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice, 6, 31–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeLisi, M., & Berg, M. T. (2006). Exploring theoretical linkages between self-control theory and criminal justice processing. Journal of Criminal Justice, 34, 153–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeLisi, M., Hochstetler, A., Higgins, G. E., Beaver, K. M., & Graeve, C. M. (2008). Toward a general theory of criminal justice: Low self-control and offender noncompliance. Criminal Justice Review, 33, 141–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeLisi, M., Hochstetler, A., & Murphy, D. S. (2003). Self-control behind bars: A validation study of the Grasmick et al. scale. Justice Quarterly, 20, 241–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeLisi, M., & Vaughn, M. G. (2008). The Gottfredson-Hirschi critiques revisited: Reconciling, self-control theory, criminal careers, and career criminals. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 52, 520–537.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Ridder, D. T. D., de Boer, B. J., Lugtig, P., Bakker, A. B., & van Hooft, E. A. J. (2011). Not doing bad things is not equivalent to doing the right thing: Distinguishing between inhibitory and initiatory self-control. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1006–1011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Ridder, D. T. D., Lensvelt-Mulders, G., Finkenauer, C., Stok, M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2012). Taking stock of self-control: A meta-analysis of how trait self-control relates to a wide range of behaviors. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16, 76–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K. A. (1980). Social cognition and children’s aggressive behavior. Child Development, 51, 162–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K. A., & Sherrill, M. R. (2007). The interaction of nature and nurture in antisocial behavior. In D. J. Flannery, A. T. Vazsonyi, & I. D. Waldman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of violent behavior and aggression (pp. 215–244). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., & Kern, M. L. (2011). A meta-analysis of the convergent validity of self-control measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 35, 259–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological Science, 16, 939–944.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eigsti, I., Zayas, V., Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., Ayduk, O., Dadlani, M. B., Davidson, M. C., Aber, J. L., & Casey, B. J. (2006). Predicting cognitive control from preschool to late adolescence and young adulthood. Psychological Science, 17, 478–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, H. S., Tucker, J. S., Tomlinson-Keasey, C., Schwartz, J. E., Wingard, D. L., & Criqui, M. H. (1993). Does childhood personality predict longevity? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 176–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goode, E. (Ed.). (2008). Out of control: Assessing the general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hay, C., & Forrest, W. (2006). The development of self-control: Examining self-control’s stability thesis. Criminology, 44, 739–774.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heatherton, T. F., & Wagner, D. D. (2011). Cognitive neuroscience of self-regulation failure. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 132–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, P. L., Turiano, N. A., Hurd, M. D., Mroczek, D. K., & Roberts, B. W. (2011). Conscientiousness and longevity: An examination of possible mediators. Health Psychology, 30, 536–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hochstetler, A., DeLisi, M., & Pratt, T. C. (2010). Social support and feelings of hostility among released inmates. Crime and Delinquency, 56, 588–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Houts, R. M., Caspi, A., Pianta, R. C., Arsenault, L., & Moffitt, T. E. (2010). The challenging pupil in the classroom: The effect of the child on the teacher. Psychological Science, 21, 1802–1810.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, J. J., Wood, D., Bogg, T., Walton, K. E., Harms, P. D., & Roberts, B. W. (2010). What do conscientiousness people do? Development and validation of the Behavioral Indicators of Conscientiousness (BIC). Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 501–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, S. E., Miller, J. D., & Lynam, D. R. (2011). Personality, antisocial behavior, and aggression: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39, 329–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langton, L. (2006). Low self-control and parole failure: An assessment of risk from a theoretical perspective. Journal of Criminal Justice, 34, 469–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, M. J., York, T. P., Franz, C. E., Grant, M. D., Eaves, L. J., Jacobson, K. C., Schaie, K. W., Panizzon, M. S., Boake, C., Xian, H., Toomey, R., Eisen, S. A., & Kremen, W. S. (2009). Genes determine stability and the environment determines change in cognitive ability during 35 years of adulthood. Psychological Science, 20, 1146–1152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mastrofski, S. D., Reisig, M. D., & McCluskey, J. D. (2002). Police disrespect toward the public: An encounter-based analysis. Criminology, 40, 519–552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. D., Lynam, D. R., & Jones, S. (2008). Externalizing behavior through the lens of the five-factor model: A focus on agreeableness and conscientiousness. Journal of Personality Assessment, 90, 158–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W., Ayduk, O., Berman, M. G., Casey, B. J., Gotlib, I. H., Jonides, J., Kross, E., Teslovich, T., Wilson, N. L., Zayas, V., & Shoda, Y. (2011). “Willpower” over the life span: Decomposing self-regulation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 6, 252–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Peake, P. K. (1988). The nature of adolescent competencies predicted by preschool delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 687–696.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. I. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244, 933–938.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E., Arsenault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Poulton, R., Roberts, B. W., Ross, S., Sears, M. R., Thomson, W. M., & Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 2693–2698.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell, D. J. (2003). Investigating latent trait and life course theories as predictors of recidivism among an offender sample. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 455–467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Gorman, J. G., & Baxter, E. (2002). Self-control as a personality measure. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 533–539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perrone, D., Sullivan, C. J., Pratt, T. C., & Margaryan, S. (2004). Parental efficacy, self-control, and delinquency: A test of the general theory of crime in a nationally representative sample of youth. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48, 298–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piquero, A., Gomez-Smith, Z., & Langton, L. (2004). Discerning unfairness where others may not: Low self-control and unfair sanction perceptions. Criminology, 42, 699–734.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polakowski, M. (1994). Linking self and social control with deviance: Illuminating the structure underlying the general theory of crime and its relation to deviant activity. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 10, 41–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, T. C., Turner, M. G., & Piquero, A. R. (2004). Parental socialization and community context: A longitudinal analysis of the structural sources of low self-control. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 41, 219–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, B. W., Harms, P. D., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2007). Predicting the counterproductive employee in a child-to-adult prospective study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1427–1436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz, M. A., Pincus, A. L., & Schinka, J. A. (2008). Externalizing pathology and the five-factor model: A meta-analysis of personality traits associated with antisocial personality disorder, substance use disorder, and their co-occurrence. Journal of Personality Disorders, 22, 365–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 271–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terracciano, A., Löckenhoff, C. E., Crum, R. M., Bienvenu, J., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (2008). Five-factor model and personality profiles of drug users. BMC Psychiatry, 8, 22. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-8-22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terracciano, A., Löckenhoff, C. E., Zonderman, A. B., Ferrucci, L., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (2008). Personality predictors of longevity: Activity, emotional stability, and conscientiousness. Psychosomatic Medicine, 70, 621–627.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, M. G., Livecchi, C. M., Beaver, K. M., & Booth, J. (2011). Moving beyond the socialization hypothesis: The effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy on the development of self-control. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39, 120–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, M. G., Piquero, A. R., & Pratt, T. C. (2005). The school context as a source of self-control. Journal of Criminal Justice, 33, 327–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn, M. G., Beaver, K. M., & DeLisi, M. (2009a). A general biosocial paradigm of antisocial behavior: A preliminary test in a sample of adolescents. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 7, 279–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn, M. G., Beaver, K. M., DeLisi, M., Perron, B. E., & Schelbe, L. (2009b). Gene-environment interplay and the importance of self-control in predicting polydrug use and substance-related problems. Addictive Behaviors, 34, 112–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, J. L., Moffitt, T. E., Earls, F., Robins, L., & Silva, P. A. (1990). How early can we tell? Predictors of childhood conduct disorder and adolescent delinquency? Criminology, 28, 507–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, S. E. (2011). The effect of low self-control on perceived police legitimacy. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39, 67–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, J. P., & Beaver, K. M. (2005). Do parents matter in creating self-control in their children? A genetically informed test of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory of low self-control. Criminology, 43, 1169–1198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, J. P., Beaver, K. M., DeLisi, M., & Vaughn, M. G. (2008). Evidence of negligible parenting influences on self-control, delinquent peers, and delinquency in a sample of twins. Justice Quarterly, 25, 544–569.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, Iowa State University, 203A East Hall, Ames, IA, 50011, USA

    Matt DeLisi

Authors
  1. Matt DeLisi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Matt DeLisi .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Department of Criminology, University of Florida, Turlington Hall 3219, Gainsville, 32611-7330, Florida, USA

    Chris L. Gibson

  2. Dept. Sociology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA

    Marvin D. Krohn

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

DeLisi, M. (2013). Pandora’s Box: The Consequences of Low Self-Control into Adulthood. In: Gibson, C., Krohn, M. (eds) Handbook of Life-Course Criminology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5113-6_15

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation