Abstract
It is well established that, after prolonged exposure to an uncontrollable situation, symptoms of learned helplessness (LH) emerge in humans as well as in infrahuman species: Performance of new tasks is seriously impaired and signs of emotional distress appear. Despite decades of intensive research, the causal mechanism underlying this fairly general behavioral phenomenon remains obscure.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abramson, L.Y., Seligman, M.E.P., & Teasdale, J. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49–74.
Abramson, N. (1963). Information theory and coding. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Averill, J. (1973). Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 286–303.
Barnett, P.A. & Gotlib, L.H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning an depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequencs. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 97–126.
Blackburn, I.M. & Smyth, P. (1985). A test of cognitive vulnerability in individuals prone to depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24, 61–62.
Brewin, C.R. & Furnham, A. (1986). Attributional versus preattributional variables in self-esteem and depression: A comparison and test of learned helplessness theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1013–1020.
Burger, J.M. & Arkin, R.M. (1980). Prediction, control, and learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 482–491.
Cantor, N. & Kihlstrom, J.F. (1987). Personality and social intelligence. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Cantor, N. & Langston, C.A. (1989). “Ups and downs” of life tasks in a life transition. In L.A. Pervin (Ed.), The goal concept in personality and social psychology (pp. 127–167). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Coyne, J.C., Metalsky, G.L., & Lavelle, T.L. (1980). Learned helplessness as experimenter-induced failure and its alleviation with attentional redeployment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 89, 350–357.
Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
Diener, C.O. & Dweck, C.S. (1978). An analysis of learned helplessness: Continuous changes in performance, strategy, and achievement cognitions following failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 451–462.
Dobson, K.S. & Shaw, B.F. (1987). Specificity and stability of self-referent encoding in clinical depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 34–40.
Douglas, D. & Anisman, H. (1975). Helplessness or expectation incongruency: Effects of aversive stimulation on subsequent performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1, 411–417.
Dweck, C.S., Davidson, W., Nelson, S., & Enna, B. (1978). Sex differences in learned helplessness: II. The contingencies of evaluative feedback in the classroom and III. An experimental analysis. Developmental Psychology, 14, 268–276.
Dweck, C.S. & Legget, E.L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273.
Dweck, C.S. & Wortman, C.B. (1982). Learned helplessness, anxiety, and achievement motivation: Neglected parallels in cognitive, affective, and coping responses. In H.W. Krohne & L. Laux (Eds.), Achievement, stress, and anxiety (pp. 93–126). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
Eaves, G. & Rush, A.J. (1984). Cognitive patterns in symptomatic and remitted unipolar major depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 31–40.
Folkman, S. & Lazarus, R.S. (1985). “If it changes it must be a process”. Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 150–170.
Frankel, A. & Snyder, M.L. (1978). Poor performance following unsolvable problems: Learned helplessness or egotism? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1415–1424.
Garber, J., Miller, S.M., & Abramson, L.Y. (1980). On the distinction between anxiety and depression: Perceived control, certainty, and probability of goal attainment. In J. Garber & M.E.P. Seligman (Eds.), Human helplessness: Theory and applications. New York: Academic Press.
Gentner, D. & Stevens, A.L. (Eds.) (1983). Mental models. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Glass, A.L. (1986). Cognition. New York: Random House.
Glass, D.C. & Singer, J.E. (1972). Urban stress. New York: Academic Press.
Gotlib, L.H. & Cane, D.B. (1987). Construct accessibility and clinical depression: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 199–204.
Hammen, C.L., Miklowitz, D.J., & Dyck, D.G. (1986). Stability and severity parameters of depressive self-schema responding. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4, 23–45.
Harris, F.A. & Tryon, W.W. (1983). Some necessary and sufficient conditions for the experimental induction of learned helplessness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 1, 15–26.
Hiroto, D.S. & Seligman, M.E.P. (1975). Generality of learned helplessness in man. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 311–327.
Holland, J.H., Holyoak, K.J., Nisbett, R.E., & Thagard, P.R. (1986). Induction: Processes of inference, learning, and discovery. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Isen, A.M., Daubman, K.A., & Nowicki, G.P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122–1131.
Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1983). Mental models. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1988). A taxonomy of thinking. In R.J. Sternberg & E.E. Smith (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 429–457). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Kiesler, C.A. (1971). The psychology of commitment. New York: Academic Press.
Kofta, M. (1989). Orientacja podmiotowa: Zarys modelu [Agentive orientation: An outline of a model]. In A. Gurycka, M. Kofta, A. Golab, & P. Jurczyk (Eds.), Podmiotowosc w doswiadczeniach wychowawczych dzieci i mlodziezy [Agency in the educational experience of children and youth] (Vol. 1, pp. 161–182). Warsaw: Warsaw University Press.
Kofta, M. & Sedek, G. (1989a). Learned helplessness: Affective or cognitive disturbance? In C.P. Spielberger, I.G. Sarason, & J. Strelau (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 12, pp. 81–96). Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publ. Corporation.
Kofta, M. & Sedek, G. (1989b). Egotism versus generalization-of-uncontrollability explanations of helplessness: Reply to Snyder and Frankel. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 413–416.
Kofta, M. & Sedek, G. (1989c). Repeated failure: A source of helplessness, or a factor irrelevant to its emergence? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 3–12.
Kofta, M. & Sedek, G. (1991a). Cognitive helplessness in school. Unpublished data. University of Warsaw, Department of Psychology.
Kofta, M. & Sedek, G. (1991b). Uncertainty during exposure to informational helplessness training: A process tracing study. Research Report. University of Warsaw, Department of Psychology.
Kuhl, J. (1984). Volitional aspects of achievement motivation and learned helplessness: Toward a comprehensive theory of action control. In B.A. Maher (Ed.), Progress of experimental personality research (Vol. 13, pp. 99–171). New York: Academic Press.
Lazarus, R.S. & Folkman, S. (1987). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1, 141–169.
Little, B. (1983). Personal projects: A rationale and methods of investigation. Environmental Behavior, 15, 273–309.
Maier, S.F. & Seligman, M.E.P. (1976). Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 105, 3–46.
Markus, H. & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954–969.
Markus, H. & Ruvolo, A. (1989). Possible selves: Personalized representations of goals. In L.A. Pervin (Ed.), The goal concept in personality and social psychology (pp. 211–241). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Mikulincer, M. (1989). Cognitive interference and learned helplessness: The effects of off-task cognitions on performance following unsolvable problems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 129–135.
Miller, S.M. & Seligman, M.E.P. (1982). The reformulated model of helplessness and depression: Evidence and theory. In R.J. Neufeld (Ed.), Psychological stress and psychopathology (pp. 149–178). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Overmier, J.B. & Wielkiewicz, R.M. (1983). On unpredictability as a causal factor in “learned helplessness.” Learning and Motivation, 14, 324–337.
Perkins, D.N. (1988). Creativity and the quest for mechanism. In R.J. Sternberg & E.E. Smith (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 309–336). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Peterson, C. & Seligman, M.E.P. (1984). Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression: Theory and evidence. Psychological Review, 91, 347–374.
Roth, S. & Kubal, L. (1975). Effects of noncontingent reinforcement on tasks of differing importance: Facilitation and learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 680–691.
Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J., & Snyder, S. (1982). Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 5–37.
Rumelhart, D. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R. Spiro, B. Bruce, & W. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Salame, R.F. (1984). Test anxiety: Its determinants, manifestations, and consequences. In H.M. van der Ploeg, R. Schwarzer, & C.D. Spielberger (Eds.), Advances in test anxiety research (Vol. 3, pp. 83–120). Lisse: Swets en Zeitlinger, and Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schank, R. & Abelson, R.P. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schlenker, B.R. & Weigold, M.F. (1989). Goals and self-identification process: Construing desired identities. In L.A. Pervin (Ed.), The goal concept in personality and social psychology (pp. 243–290). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schultz, R. (1976). The effects of control and predictability on the physical and psychological well-being of the institutionalized aged. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 563–573.
Sedek, G. (1982). Influence of attributions of causality on learned helplessness. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 13, 29–37.
Sedek, G. & Kofta, M. (1989). Length of informational helplessness training and subsequent performance. Research report. University of Warsaw, Department of Psychology.
Sedek, G. & Kofta, M. (1990). When cognitive exertion does not yield cognitive gain: Toward an informational explanation of learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 729–743.
Sedek, G. & Kofta, M. (1991). Helpless orientation and personal future. Unpublished data. University of Warsaw, Department of Psychology.
Seligman, M.E.P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. San Francisco: Freeman.
Steele, C.M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261–302). New York: Academic Press.
Sternberg, R.J. (1985). Beyond I.Q.: A triachic theory of human intelligence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Tennen, H. & Eller, S.J. (1977). Attributional components of learned helplessness and facilitation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 265–271.
Thompson, S.C. (1981). Will it hurt less if I can control it? A complex answer to a simple question. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 89–101.
Zirkel, S. & Cantor, N. (1990). Personal construal of life tasks: Those who struggle for independence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 172–185.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1993 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kofta, M. (1993). Uncertainty, Mental Models, and Learned Helplessness: An Anatomy of Control Loss. In: Weary, G., Gleicher, F., Marsh, K.L. (eds) Control Motivation and Social Cognition. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8309-3_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8309-3_5
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-8311-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-8309-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive