Skip to main content

Uncertainty, Mental Models, and Learned Helplessness: An Anatomy of Control Loss

  • Chapter
Control Motivation and Social Cognition

Abstract

It is well established that, after prolonged exposure to an uncontrollable situation, symptoms of learned helplessness (LH) emerge in humans as well as in infrahuman species: Performance of new tasks is seriously impaired and signs of emotional distress appear. Despite decades of intensive research, the causal mechanism underlying this fairly general behavioral phenomenon remains obscure.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Abramson, L.Y., Seligman, M.E.P., & Teasdale, J. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abramson, N. (1963). Information theory and coding. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Averill, J. (1973). Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 286–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, P.A. & Gotlib, L.H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning an depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequencs. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 97–126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blackburn, I.M. & Smyth, P. (1985). A test of cognitive vulnerability in individuals prone to depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 24, 61–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C.R. & Furnham, A. (1986). Attributional versus preattributional variables in self-esteem and depression: A comparison and test of learned helplessness theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1013–1020.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J.M. & Arkin, R.M. (1980). Prediction, control, and learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 482–491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cantor, N. & Kihlstrom, J.F. (1987). Personality and social intelligence. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cantor, N. & Langston, C.A. (1989). “Ups and downs” of life tasks in a life transition. In L.A. Pervin (Ed.), The goal concept in personality and social psychology (pp. 127–167). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coyne, J.C., Metalsky, G.L., & Lavelle, T.L. (1980). Learned helplessness as experimenter-induced failure and its alleviation with attentional redeployment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 89, 350–357.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, C.O. & Dweck, C.S. (1978). An analysis of learned helplessness: Continuous changes in performance, strategy, and achievement cognitions following failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 451–462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dobson, K.S. & Shaw, B.F. (1987). Specificity and stability of self-referent encoding in clinical depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 34–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Douglas, D. & Anisman, H. (1975). Helplessness or expectation incongruency: Effects of aversive stimulation on subsequent performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1, 411–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, C.S., Davidson, W., Nelson, S., & Enna, B. (1978). Sex differences in learned helplessness: II. The contingencies of evaluative feedback in the classroom and III. An experimental analysis. Developmental Psychology, 14, 268–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, C.S. & Legget, E.L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dweck, C.S. & Wortman, C.B. (1982). Learned helplessness, anxiety, and achievement motivation: Neglected parallels in cognitive, affective, and coping responses. In H.W. Krohne & L. Laux (Eds.), Achievement, stress, and anxiety (pp. 93–126). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eaves, G. & Rush, A.J. (1984). Cognitive patterns in symptomatic and remitted unipolar major depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 31–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, S. & Lazarus, R.S. (1985). “If it changes it must be a process”. Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 150–170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, A. & Snyder, M.L. (1978). Poor performance following unsolvable problems: Learned helplessness or egotism? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1415–1424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garber, J., Miller, S.M., & Abramson, L.Y. (1980). On the distinction between anxiety and depression: Perceived control, certainty, and probability of goal attainment. In J. Garber & M.E.P. Seligman (Eds.), Human helplessness: Theory and applications. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentner, D. & Stevens, A.L. (Eds.) (1983). Mental models. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glass, A.L. (1986). Cognition. New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glass, D.C. & Singer, J.E. (1972). Urban stress. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gotlib, L.H. & Cane, D.B. (1987). Construct accessibility and clinical depression: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 199–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C.L., Miklowitz, D.J., & Dyck, D.G. (1986). Stability and severity parameters of depressive self-schema responding. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4, 23–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, F.A. & Tryon, W.W. (1983). Some necessary and sufficient conditions for the experimental induction of learned helplessness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 1, 15–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hiroto, D.S. & Seligman, M.E.P. (1975). Generality of learned helplessness in man. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 311–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holland, J.H., Holyoak, K.J., Nisbett, R.E., & Thagard, P.R. (1986). Induction: Processes of inference, learning, and discovery. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A.M., Daubman, K.A., & Nowicki, G.P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122–1131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1983). Mental models. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1988). A taxonomy of thinking. In R.J. Sternberg & E.E. Smith (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 429–457). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiesler, C.A. (1971). The psychology of commitment. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kofta, M. (1989). Orientacja podmiotowa: Zarys modelu [Agentive orientation: An outline of a model]. In A. Gurycka, M. Kofta, A. Golab, & P. Jurczyk (Eds.), Podmiotowosc w doswiadczeniach wychowawczych dzieci i mlodziezy [Agency in the educational experience of children and youth] (Vol. 1, pp. 161–182). Warsaw: Warsaw University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kofta, M. & Sedek, G. (1989a). Learned helplessness: Affective or cognitive disturbance? In C.P. Spielberger, I.G. Sarason, & J. Strelau (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 12, pp. 81–96). Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publ. Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kofta, M. & Sedek, G. (1989b). Egotism versus generalization-of-uncontrollability explanations of helplessness: Reply to Snyder and Frankel. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 413–416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kofta, M. & Sedek, G. (1989c). Repeated failure: A source of helplessness, or a factor irrelevant to its emergence? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 3–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kofta, M. & Sedek, G. (1991a). Cognitive helplessness in school. Unpublished data. University of Warsaw, Department of Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kofta, M. & Sedek, G. (1991b). Uncertainty during exposure to informational helplessness training: A process tracing study. Research Report. University of Warsaw, Department of Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhl, J. (1984). Volitional aspects of achievement motivation and learned helplessness: Toward a comprehensive theory of action control. In B.A. Maher (Ed.), Progress of experimental personality research (Vol. 13, pp. 99–171). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R.S. & Folkman, S. (1987). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1, 141–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, B. (1983). Personal projects: A rationale and methods of investigation. Environmental Behavior, 15, 273–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maier, S.F. & Seligman, M.E.P. (1976). Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 105, 3–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H. & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954–969.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H. & Ruvolo, A. (1989). Possible selves: Personalized representations of goals. In L.A. Pervin (Ed.), The goal concept in personality and social psychology (pp. 211–241). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mikulincer, M. (1989). Cognitive interference and learned helplessness: The effects of off-task cognitions on performance following unsolvable problems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 129–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, S.M. & Seligman, M.E.P. (1982). The reformulated model of helplessness and depression: Evidence and theory. In R.J. Neufeld (Ed.), Psychological stress and psychopathology (pp. 149–178). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Overmier, J.B. & Wielkiewicz, R.M. (1983). On unpredictability as a causal factor in “learned helplessness.” Learning and Motivation, 14, 324–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins, D.N. (1988). Creativity and the quest for mechanism. In R.J. Sternberg & E.E. Smith (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 309–336). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C. & Seligman, M.E.P. (1984). Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression: Theory and evidence. Psychological Review, 91, 347–374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, S. & Kubal, L. (1975). Effects of noncontingent reinforcement on tasks of differing importance: Facilitation and learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 680–691.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J., & Snyder, S. (1982). Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 5–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rumelhart, D. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R. Spiro, B. Bruce, & W. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salame, R.F. (1984). Test anxiety: Its determinants, manifestations, and consequences. In H.M. van der Ploeg, R. Schwarzer, & C.D. Spielberger (Eds.), Advances in test anxiety research (Vol. 3, pp. 83–120). Lisse: Swets en Zeitlinger, and Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schank, R. & Abelson, R.P. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlenker, B.R. & Weigold, M.F. (1989). Goals and self-identification process: Construing desired identities. In L.A. Pervin (Ed.), The goal concept in personality and social psychology (pp. 243–290). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, R. (1976). The effects of control and predictability on the physical and psychological well-being of the institutionalized aged. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 563–573.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sedek, G. (1982). Influence of attributions of causality on learned helplessness. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 13, 29–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sedek, G. & Kofta, M. (1989). Length of informational helplessness training and subsequent performance. Research report. University of Warsaw, Department of Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sedek, G. & Kofta, M. (1990). When cognitive exertion does not yield cognitive gain: Toward an informational explanation of learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 729–743.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sedek, G. & Kofta, M. (1991). Helpless orientation and personal future. Unpublished data. University of Warsaw, Department of Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M.E.P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. San Francisco: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele, C.M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261–302). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sternberg, R.J. (1985). Beyond I.Q.: A triachic theory of human intelligence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tennen, H. & Eller, S.J. (1977). Attributional components of learned helplessness and facilitation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 265–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, S.C. (1981). Will it hurt less if I can control it? A complex answer to a simple question. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 89–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zirkel, S. & Cantor, N. (1990). Personal construal of life tasks: Those who struggle for independence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 172–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1993 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kofta, M. (1993). Uncertainty, Mental Models, and Learned Helplessness: An Anatomy of Control Loss. In: Weary, G., Gleicher, F., Marsh, K.L. (eds) Control Motivation and Social Cognition. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8309-3_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-8309-3_5

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-8311-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-8309-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics