Skip to main content

Altruism and Human Kindness: Internal and External Determinants of Helping Behavior

  • Chapter
Perspectives in Interactional Psychology

Abstract

In several incidents, of which the Kitty Genovese tragedy is the best known and best publicized, bystanders have watched without offering assistance while other humans have suffered and even died. In the Genovese case, thirty-eight persons witnessed a woman being repeatedly stabbed; not one intervened, not one called the police.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aderman, D., and Berkowitz, L. Observational set, empathy, and helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1970, 14, 141–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aronfreed, J.M. Conduct and conscience: The socialization of internalized control over behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aronson, E. The theory of cognitive dissonance: A current perspective. In L., Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 4). New York: Academic Press, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashton, N.L., and Severy, L. Arousal and costs in bystander intervention. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1976, 2, 268–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A., and Rosenthal, L. Vicarious classical conditioning as a function of arousal level. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1963, 3, 54–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Batson, C.D. Religion as prosocial: Agent or double agent? Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 1976, 15, 29–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Batson, C.D., Coke, J.S. Chard, F., Smith, D., and Taliaferro, A. Activation as a mediatorof the effect of mood on helping: A second look. Unpublished manuscript, University of Kansas, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bern, D.J. Self-perception theory. In L., Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6). New York: Academic Press, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berger, S.M. Conditioning through vicarious instigation. Psychological Review, 1962, 69, 450–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, L. Liking for the group and the perceived merit of the group’s behavior. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1957, 54, 353–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, L. Social motivation. InG., Lindzey and E., Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 3). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, L. Social norms, feelings, and other factors affecting helping and altruism. In L., Berkowitz (Ed.). Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6). New York: Academic Press, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, L., and Connor, W.H. Success, failure, and social responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1966, 4, 664–669.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, L., and Daniels, L.R. Responsibility and dependency. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1963, 66, 429–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, L., and Daniels, L.R. Affecting the salience of the social responsibility norm: Effects of past help on the response to dependency relationships. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1964, 68, 275–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bickman, L. The effect of another bystander’s ability to help on bystander intervention in an emergency. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1971, 7, 367–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bickman, L. Social influence and diffusion of responsibility in an emergency. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1972, 8, 438–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blank, J. Rescue on the freeway. Reader’s Digest, 1970, 96 (577),73–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borke, H. Interpersonal perception of young children: Ego-centrism or empathy? Developmental Psychology, 1971, 263–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D.T. On the genetics of altruism and the counter-hedonic components in human culture. Journal of Social Issues, 1972, 28, 21–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D.T, On the conflicts between biological and social evolution and between psychology and moral tradition. American Psychologist, 1975, 30, 1103–1126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R.D.,III, and Word, L.E. Why don’t bystanders help? Because of ambiguity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1972, 24, 392–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R.D.,III, and Word, L.E. Where is the apathetic bystander? Situational characteristics of the emergency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1974, 29, 279–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coke, J.S., and Batson, C.D. Empathy as a mediator of helping behavior: A dose of kindness. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, California, August, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coke, J.S., Batson, C.D., and McDavis, K. Empathic mediation of helping: A two-stage model. Unpublished manuscript, University of Kansas, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craig, K.D. and Lowery, J.H. Heart rate components of conditioned vicarious autonomic responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1969, 11, 381–387.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Craig, K.D., and Wood, K. Psychophysiological differentiation of direct and vicarious affective arousal. Canadian journal of Behavior Science, 1969, 1, 98–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J.M., and Batson, C.D. “From Jerusalem to Jericho”: A study of situational and dispositional variables in helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1973, 27, 100–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J.M., and Latane, B. Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1968, 8, 377–383.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J.M., and Latane, B. Norms and normative behavior: Field studies of social-interdependence. In J., Macaulay and L., Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J.M., Teger, A.L., and Lewis, L.D. Do groups always inhibit individuals responses to potential emergencies? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1973, 26, 395–399.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dovidio, J.F., and Morris, W.N. Effects of stress and commonality of fate on helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 31 145–155

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duval, S., and Wicklund, R.A. A theory of objective self-awareness. New York: Academic Press, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dymond, R. A scale for the measurement of empathic ability. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1949, 13, 127–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L. A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flavell, J.H. The development of role-taking and communication skill in chilren. New York: Wiley, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaertner, S.L., and Dovidio, J.F. The subtlety of white racism, arousal, and helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1977, 35, 691–707.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geer, J.H., and Jarmecky, L, The effect of being responsible for reducing another’s pain on subject’s response and arousal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1973, 26, 232–237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gergen, K.J., Gergen, M.M., and Meter, K. Individual orientations to prosocial behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 1972, 28, (3), 105–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gouldner, A.W. The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 1960, 25, 161–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, J. The effect of relatioe and absolu te distance on helping behavior in an emergency situation. Unpublished manuscript, University of Pennsylvania, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. Does the Good Samaritan parable increase helping? A comment on Darley and Batson’s no effect conclusion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 32, 578–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, W.O. The genetic evolution of social behavior. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 1964, 7, 1–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, W.O. Selection of selfish and altruistic behavior in some extreme models. In J.F., Eisenberg and W.S., Dillon (Eds.), Man and beast: Comparative social behavior. Washington, D.C., Smithsonian Institution Press, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, M.B., and Huang, L.C. Helping and the attribution process. Journal of Social Psychology, 1973, 90, 291–297.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hebb, D.O. Comment on altruism: The comparative evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 1971, 76, 409–410.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heberlein, T.A. and Black, J.S. The land ethic in action: Personal norms, beliefs, and the purchase of lead-free gasoline. Paper presented at the meeting of the Rural Sociology Association, Montreal, August, 197

    Google Scholar 

  • Heider, F. The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley, 1958.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M.L. Developmental synthesis of affect and cognition and its implications for altruistic motivation. Deoelopmental Psychology, 1975, 11, 607–622.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M.L. Empathy, role-taking, guilt, and development of altruistic motives. In T., Lickona (Ed.), Moral development and behavior: Theory, research, and social issues. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, L.A. Effect of choice and locus of dependence on helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1968, 8, 373–376.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huston, T.L., and Korte, C The responsive bystander: Why he helps. In T., Lickona(Ed.), Moral dcnelopment and behaoior: Theory, research, and social issues. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A.M. Success, failure, attention, and reactions to others: The warm glow of success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1970, 15, 294–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A.M., Clark, M., and Schwartz, M.F. Duration of the effect of good mood on helping: “Footprints on the sands of time.“ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1976, 34, 385–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A.M., Horn, N., and Rosenhan, D.L. Effects of success and failure on children’s generosity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1973, 27, 239–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A.M., and Levin, P.F. The effect of feeling good on helping: Cookies and kindness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1972, 21, 384–388.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A.M., Shalker, L.E., Clark, M., and Karp, L. Affect, accessibility of material in memory and behavior A cognitive loop. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1978, 36, 1–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, H.H. Attribution theory in social psychology. In D., Levine (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 15). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, H.H. Attribution in social interaction. In E.E., Jones, D.E., Kanouse, H.H., Kelley, R.E., Nisbett S., Valins. and B., Weiner (Eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior. Morristown. N.J. General Learning Press, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L. Moral stages and moralization: The cognitive-developmental approach. In T., Lickona (Ed.). Moral development and behavior: Theory, research, and social issues. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Korte, C. Effects of individual responsibility and group communication on help-giving in an emergency. Human Relations, 1971, 24, 149–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, D.L. Altruism examination of the concept and a review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 1970, 71, 258–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, D.L. Infrahuman altruism. Psychological Bulletin, 1971, 76, 411–414.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, D. Empathy and altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 32, 1134–1146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, T. The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago, 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  • Latanä, B., and Darley, J.M. Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1968, 10, 215–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latanä, B., and Darley, J.M. The unresponsitie bystander: Why doesn't he help? New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Latanä, B., and Rodin, J. A lady in distress: Inhibiting effects of friends and strangers on bystander intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1969, 5, 189–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leeds, A. Altruism and the norms of giving. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1963, 9, 229–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macaulay, J. Familiarity, attraction, and charity. Journal of Social Psychology, 1975, 95, 27–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macaulay, J. and Berkowitz, L. Altruism and helping behavior: Social psychological studies of some antecedents and consequences. New York: Academic Press, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mehrabian, A., and Epstein, N. A measure of emotional empathy. Journal of Personality, 1972, 40, 525–543.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Midlarsky, E., and Midlarsky, E. Some determinants of aiding under experimentally induced stress. Journal of Personality, 1973, 41, 305–327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, B.S., Underwood, B., and Rosenhan, D.L. Affect and altruism. Developmental Psychology, 1973, 8, 99–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nomikos, M., Opton, E., Jr.. Averill, J., and Lazarus, R. Surprise versus suspense in theproduction of stress reaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1968, 8, 204–208.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piliavin, J.A., and Piliavin, I.M The effect of blood on reactions to a victim. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1972, 23, 253–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piliavin, J.A., and Piliavin, I.M. The Good Samaritan: Why does he help? Unpublished manuscript, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piliavin, J.A., Piliavin, I.M. and Broll, L. Time of arrival at an emergency and likelihood of helping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1976, 2, 268–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piliavin, I.M., Piliavin, J.A., and Rodin, J. Costs, diffusion, and the stigmatized victim. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 32, 429–438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piliavin, I.M., Rodin, J., and Piliavin, J.A. Good Samaritanism: An underground phenomenon? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1969, 13, 289–299.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Regan, D.T., and Totten, J, Empathy and attribution: Turning observers into actors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 32, 850-856.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenhan, D.L. Learning theory and prosocial behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 1972, 28 (3), 151–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenhan, D.L., Moore, B.S., and Underwood, B. The social psychology of moral behavior. In T., Lickona (Ed.), Moral development and behavior: Theory, research, and social issues. New York: Holt. Rinehart, and Winston, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenhan, D.L., Underwood, B., and Moore, B. Affect moderates self-gratification and altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1974, 30, 546–552.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, A.M. Thirty-eight witnesses. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, A.S., and Braband, J. Effect of increased responsibility on bystander intervention, II: The cue value of a blind person. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1973, 25, 254–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothstein, H.R. Attitudes and behavior: The effects of perceived payoffs and facilitating intrapersonal conditions. Attitudes and behavior: The effects of perceived payoffs and facilitating intrapersonal conditions, The Hebrew University, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutherford, E., and Mussen, P. Generosity in nursery school boys. Child Development, 1968, 39, 755–765.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schachter, S. The interaction of cognitive and physiological determinants of emotional state. In L., Berkowitz (Ed.). Advances in experimental social psychology. Vol. 1. New York: Academic Press, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaps, E. Cost, dependency, and helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1972, 21, 74–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schopler, J., and Bateson, N. The power of dependence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1965, 2, 247–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schopler, J., and Matthews, M. The influence of perceived causal locus of partner’s dependence on the use of interpersonal power. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1965, 2, 609–612

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S.H. Words, deeds, and the perception of consequences and responsibility in action situations, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1968, 10, 232-242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S.H. Elicitation of moral obligation and self-sacrificing behavior. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 1970, 15, 283–293.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S.H. Normative explanations of helping behavior: A critique, proposal, and empirical test. Journal of Exprimental Social Psychology, 1973, 9, 349–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S.H. The justice of need and the activation of humanitarian norms. Journal of Social Issues, 1975, 31 (3) 111–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S.H. Normative influences on altruism. In L., Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social (Vol. 109). New York: Academic Press, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S.H., and Clausen, G.T. Responsibility, norms, and helping in an emergency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1970, 16, 229–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S.H., and Gottlieb, A. Bystander reactions to a violent theft; Crime in Jerusalem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1976, 34, 1188–1199.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Selman, R.L. Social-cognitive understanding: A guide to educational and clinical practice. InT., Lickona (Ed.). Moral development and behavior: Theory, research, and social issues. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Severy, LJ. Comment on: “Positive forms of social behavior: An overview.” Journal of Social Issues, 1974, 30 (2).

    Google Scholar 

  • Simner, M.L. Newborn’s response to the cry of another infant. Developmental Psychology, 1971, 5, 136–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. The theory of moral sentiments. London: A. Miller, 1759.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sole, K, Marton,J., and Hornstein, H.A. Opinion similarity and helping: Three field experiments investigating the bases of promotive tensionat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1975, 11, 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Staub, E. Helping a person in distress: The influence of implicit and explicit “rule” of conduct on children and adults. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 1971, 17, 137–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Staub, E. Helping a distressed person: Social, personality, and stimulus determinants. In L., Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 7). New York: Academic Press, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stotland, E. Exploratory investigations of empathy. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 4). New York: Academic Press, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tagiuri, R. Person perception. In G., Lindzey and E., Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol.3). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorndike, E.L. Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative process in animals. PsychOlogical Renieto, 1898, Monograph Supplement No.8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valins, S. Cognitive effects of false heart-rate feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1966, 400–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, C., and Wheeler, L. Model, need, and cost effects in helping behavior. Journal of Personulin and Social Psychology, 1969, 12, 111–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, F.H. Altruism, ambiance. and action: The effects of rural and urban rearing on helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1976, 34, 112–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, R.F., Boyer, J.L., Lombardo,J.P., and StichM.H. Altruistic drive and altruistic reinforcement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1973, 25, 390–400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wispe, L.G. Sympathy and empathy. In D.L, Sills (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social sciences, (Vol. 15), New York: Free Press, 1968, 441-447.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wispe, L.G.Positive forms of social behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 1972, 28 (3).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yakimovich, D., and Saltz, E. Helping behavior: The cry for help. Psychonomic Science, 1971, 23, 427-428.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1978 Plenum Press, New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Batson, C.D., Darley, J.M., Coke, J.S. (1978). Altruism and Human Kindness: Internal and External Determinants of Helping Behavior. In: Pervin, L.A., Lewis, M. (eds) Perspectives in Interactional Psychology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-3997-7_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-3997-7_6

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-3999-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-3997-7

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics