Skip to main content

Lesbian and Gay Parents and their Children: A Social Science Perspective

  • Chapter
Contemporary Perspectives on Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identities

Part of the book series: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation ((NSM,volume 54))

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting stress index: Professional manual (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Teacher's Report Form and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychology

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. (1983). Manual for the child behavior checklist and revised child behavior profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry

    Google Scholar 

  • Adoption of Tammy, 416 Mass. 205, 619 N.E.2d 315 (MA., 1993).

    Google Scholar 

  • Adoptions of B.L.V.B. & E.L.V.B., 628 A.2d 1271 (Vt. 1993).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1985a). Patterns of infant—mother attachments: Antecedents and effects on development. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 61, 771–791.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1985b). Attachments across the life span. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 61, 792–812.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, K.R., & Demo, D.H. (1995). The families of lesbians and gay men: A new frontier in family research. Journal of Marriage and the Family 57, 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumrind, D. (1995). Commentary on sexual orientation: Research and social policy implications. Developmental Psychology, 31, 130–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bearman, P. S., Jones, J., & Udry, J. R. (1997). The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health: Research Design. Available via internet at: http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth.

  • Bem, S. L. (1983). Gender schema theory and its implications for child development: Raising gender-aschematic children in a gender-schematic society. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 8, 598–616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonacich, P. (1987). Power and centrality: A family of measures. American Journal of Sociology, 92, 1170–1182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boswell v. Boswell, 352 Md. 204; 721 A.2d 662 (1998).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bottoms v. Bottoms, No. 941166 (Va. 1995).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent—child attachment and healthy human development. New York: Basic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braiker, H. B., & Kelley, H. H. (1979). Conflict in the development of close relationships. In R. L. Burgess & T. L. Huston (Eds.), Social exchange in developing relationships (pp. 135–168). New York, NY: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1960). Freudian theories of identification and their derivatives. Child Development, 31, 15–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess v. Burgess, 708 N. E. 2d 930; 1999 Ind. App. LEXIS 300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carolina Population Center University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (1997). National longitudinal study of adolescent health: Wave I network variables code book. Retrieved on March 23, 2004, from http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/codebooks/wave1.

  • Chan, R. W., Brooks, R. C., Raboy, B., & Patterson, C. J. (1998). Division of labor among lesbian and heterosexual parents: Associations with children's adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 402–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, R. W., Raboy, B., & Patterson, C. J. (1998). Psychosocial adjustment among children conceived via donor insemination by lesbian and heterosexual mothers. Child Development, 69, 443–457.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chodorow, N. (1978). The reproduction of mothering: Psychoanalysis and the sociology of gender. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowan, C. P., & Cowan, P. A. (1990). Who does what? In J. Touliatos, B. F. Perlmutter, & M. A. Straus (Eds.), Handbook of family measurement techniques (pp. 447–448). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowan, C. P., & Cowan, P. A. (1992). When partners become parents: The big life change for couples. New York, NY: Basic.

    Google Scholar 

  • D'Augelli, A.R., and Patterson, C.J. (Ed.) (1995). Lesbian, gay and bisexual identities over the lifespan: Psychological persspectives New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flaks, D. K., Ficher, I., Masterpasqua, F., & Joseph, G. (1995). Lesbians choosing motherhood: A comparative study of lesbian and heterosexual parents and their children. Developmental Psychology, 31, 105–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fulcher, M., Chan, R. W., Raboy, B., & Patterson, C. J. (2002). Contact with grandparents among children conceived via donor insemination by lesbian and heterosexual mothers. Parenting: Science and Practice, 2, 61–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fulcher, M., Sutfin, E. L., Chan, R. W., Scheib, J. E., & Patterson, C. J. (2005). Lesbian mothers and their children: Findings from the contemporary families study. In A. Omoto & H. Kurtzman (Eds.), Recent research on sexual orientation, mental health, and substance abuse (pp. 281–299). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gartrell, N., Banks, A., Hamiliton, J, Reed, N., Bishop, H., & Rodas, C. (1999). The national lesbian family study: 2. Interviews with mothers of toddlers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69, 362–369.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gartrell, N., Banks, A., Reed, N., Hamiliton, R. C., & Deck, A. (2000). The national lesbian family study: 3. Interviews with mothers of five-year olds. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 542–548.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gartrell, N., Deck, A., Rodas, C., Peyser, H., & Banks, A. (2005). The national lesbian family study: 4. Interviews with the 10-year-old children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75, 518–524.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gartrell, N., Hamilton, J., Banks, A., Mosbacher, D., Reed, N., Sparks, C. H.,et al. (1996). The national lesbian family study: 1. Interviews with prospective mothers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66, 272–281.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gates, G. J., Badgett, M. V. L., Macomber, J. E., & Chambers, K. (2007). Adoption and foster care by gay and lesbian parents in the United States. Los Angeles, CA: The Williams Institute, UCLA Law School.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gershon, T. D., Tschann, J. M., & Jemerin, J. M. (1999). Stigmatization, self-esteem, and coping among the adolescent children of lesbian mothers. Journal of Adolescent Health, 24, 437–445.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Golombok, S. (1999). Parenting: What really counts? New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Golombok, S., Perry, B., Burston, A., Murray, C., Mooney-Somers, J., Stevens, M., et al. (2003). Children with lesbian parents: A community study. Developmental Psychology, 39, 20–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Golombok, S., & Tasker, F. (1994). Children in lesbian and gay families: Theories and evidence. Annual Review of Sex Research, 5, 73–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodridge v. Department of Public Health, 440 Mass. 309 SJC-08860 (2003).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonsiorek, J.C. (1990). The empirical basis for the demise of the illness model of homosexuality. In J.C. Gonsiorek and J.D. Weinrich (Eds.), Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy. Beverly Hills: Sage

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynie, D. L. (2000). The peer group revisited: A network approach for understanding adolescent delinquency. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (2006). Legal recognition of same-sex relationships in the United States: A social science perspective. American Psychologist, 61, 607–621.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huggins, S. L. (1989). A comparative study of self-esteem of adolescent children of divorced lesbian mothers and divorced heterosexual mothers. In F. W. Bozett (Ed.), Homosexuality and the family (pp. 123–135). New York, NY: Harrington Park Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huston, A. (1983). Sex typing. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.) & P. H. Mussen (Series Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Volume 4. Socialization, personality, and social development (pp. 387–487). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • In Re Adoption of Evan, 583 N.Y.S.2d 997 (Sur. 1992).

    Google Scholar 

  • Khaleque, A., & Rohner, R. P. (2002). Perceived parental acceptance-rejection and psychological adjustment: A meta-analysis of cross-cultural and intracultural studies. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 54–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkpatrick, M. (1996). Lesbians as parents. In R. P. Cabaj & T. S. Stein (Eds.), Textbook of homosexuality and mental health. (pp. 353–370) Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koepke, L., Hare, J., & Moran, P. B. (1992). Relationship quality in a sample of lesbian couples with children and child-free lesbian couples. Family Relations, 41, 224–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L. (1966). A cognitive-developmental analysis of children's sex-role concepts and attitudes. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences (pp. 82–173). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohut, H. (1971). The analysis of the self. Madison, CT: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohut, H. (1977). The restoration of the self. Madison, CT: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohut, H. (1984). How does analysis cure? Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurdek, L. (1993). The allocation of household labor in homosexual and heterosexual cohabiting couples. Journal of Social Issues, 49, 127–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laird, J. (1993). Lesbian and gay families. In F. Walsh (Ed.), Normal family processes (2nd ed.), (pp. 282–328). New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, E. (1993). Lesbian mothers: Accounts of gender in American culture. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Locke, H., & Wallace, K. (1959). Short marital adjustment and prediction tests: Their reliability and validity. Marriage and Family Living, 21, 251–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovingv. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967).

    Google Scholar 

  • McCandlish, B. (1987). Against all odds: Lesbian mother family dynamics. In F. W. Bozett (Ed.), Gay and lesbian parents (pp. 23–38). New York, NY: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390 (1923).

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Connor, A. (1993). Voices from the heart: The developmental impact of a mother's lesbianism on her adolescent children. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 63, 281–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J. (1992). Children of lesbian and gay parents. Child Development, 63, 1025–1042.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J. (1994). Children of the lesbian baby boom: Behavioral adjustment, self-concepts, and sex-role identity. In B. Greene & G. Herek (Eds.), Contemporary perspectives on lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research and application (pp. 156–175). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J. (1995a). Families of the lesbian baby boom: Parents' division of labor and children's adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 31, 115–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J. (1995b). Lesbian mothers, gay fathers, and their children. In A. R. D'Augelli & C. J. Patterson (Eds.), Lesbian, gay and bisexual identities over the lifespan: Psychological perspectives (pp. 262–290). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C.J. (1995c). Adoption of minor children by lesbian and gay adults: A social science perspective. Duke Journal of Gender Law and Policy, 2, 191–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J. (1996). Contributions of lesbian and gay parents and their children to the prevention of heterosexism. In E. D. Rothblum & L. A. Bond (Eds.), Preventing heterosexism and homophobia (pp. 184–201) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J. (1998). Family lives of children with lesbian mothers. In C. J. Patterson & A. R. D'Augelli (Eds.), Lesbian, gay and bisexual identities in families: Psychological perspectives (pp. 154–176). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J. (2000). Sexual orientation and family life: A decade review. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1052–1069.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J. (2001). Families of the lesbian baby boom: Maternal mental health and child adjustment. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Psychotherapy, 4, 91–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J. (2002). Lesbian and gay parenthood. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (2nd ed.), (pp. 317–338). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J. (2005). Lesbian and gay parents and their children: summary of research findings. In Lesbian and gay parenting: A resource for psychologists (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Available online at: http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbc/publica-tions/lgparenthome.html.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J. (2006). Children of lesbian and gay parents. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 241–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J. (2007). Lesbian and gay family issues in the context of changing legal and social policy environments. In K. J. Bieschke, R. M. Perez, & K. A. DeBord (Eds.), Handbook of counseling and psychotherapy with lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender clients (2nd ed.) Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J., Fulcher, M., & Wainright, J. (2002). Children of lesbian and gay parents: Research, law, and policy. In B. L. Bottoms, M. B. Kovera, & B. D. McAuliff (Eds.), Children, social science and the law (pp. 176–199). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J., & Hastings, P. (2006). Socialization in context of family diversity. In J. Grusec & P. D. Hastings (Eds.), Handbook of socialization (pp. 328–352). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, C. J., Hurt, S., & Mason, C. D. (1998). Families of the lesbian baby boom: Children's contact with grandparents and other adults. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68, 390–399.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pawelski, J.G., Perrin, E.C., Foy, J.M., Allen, C.E., Crawford, J.E. et al. (2006). The effects of marriage, civil union, and domestic partnership on the health and wellbeing of children. Pediatrics, 118, 349–364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peplau, L. A., Veniegas, R. C., & Campell, S. M. (1996). Gay and lesbian relationships. In R. C. Savin-Williams & K. M. Cohen (Eds.), The lives of lesbians, gays, and bisexuals: Children to adults (pp. 250–273). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrin, C. E. (2002). Technical report: Coparent or second-parent adoption by same-sex parents. Pediatrics, 109, 341–344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perry-Jenkins, M., & Crouter, A.C. (1990). Men's provider-role attitudes: Implications for household work and marital satisfaction. Journal of Family Issues, 11, 136–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polikoff, N. (1990). This child does have two mothers: Redefining parenthood to meet the needs of children in lesbian mother and other nontraditional families. Georgetown Law Journal, 78, 459ff.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pulliam v. Smith, 348 N. C. 616; 501 S. E. 2d 898 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J. et al. (1997). Protecting adolescent from harm: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278 (10), 823–832.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rohner, R. P. (1999). Acceptance and rejection. In D. Livinson, J. Ponzetti, & Jorgenson (Eds.), Encyclopedia of human emotions (Vol. 1, pp. 6–14). New York, NY: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York, NY: Basic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saffron, L. (1996). What about the children?: Sons and daughters of lesbian and gay parents talk about their lives. New York, NY: Cassell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scal, P., Ireland, M., & Borowsky, I. W. (2003). Smoking among American adolescents: A risk and protective factor analysis. Journal of Community Health, 28, 79–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sieving, R. E., Beurhing, T., Resnick, M. D., Bearinger, L. H., Shew, M., Ireland, M., et al. (2000). Development of adolescent self-report measures from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of Adolescent Health, 28(1), 73–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverstein, L. B., & Auerbach, C. F. (1999). Deconstructing the essential father. American Psychologist, 54, 397–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535 (1942).

    Google Scholar 

  • S.N.E. v. R.L.B., 699 P.2d 875 (Alaska 1985).

    Google Scholar 

  • Stacey, J., & Biblarz, T. J. (2001). (How) does the sexual orientation of parents matter? American Sociological Review, 66, 159–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steckel, A. (1987). Psychosocial development of children of lesbian mothers. In F. W. Bozett (Ed.), Gay and lesbian parents (pp. 75–85). New York, NY: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S. D., Dornbusch, S. M., & Darling, N. (1992). Impact of parenting practices on adolescent achievement: Authoritative parenting, school involvement, and encouragement to succeed. Child Development, 63, 1266–1281.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., & Silk, J. S. (2002). Parenting adolescents. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting, Volume 1: Children and parenting (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, M., Golombok, S., Beveridge, M., & the ALSPAC Study Team (2002). Does father absence influence children's gender development? Findings from a general population study of preschool children. Parenting: Science and Practice, 2, 47–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tasker, F. L., & Golombok, S. (1997). Growing up in a lesbian family: Effects on child Development. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tasker, F., & Patterson, C. J. (2007). Research on gay and lesbian parenting: Retrospect and prospect. Journal of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Family Issues, 3, 9–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wainright, J. L., & Patterson, C. J. (2006). Delinquency, victimization, and substance use among adolescents with female same-sex parents. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 526–530.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wainright, J. L., & Patterson, C. J. (2008). Peer relations among adolescents with female same-sex parents. Developmental Psychology, 44, 117–126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wainright, J. L., Russell, S. T., & Patterson, C. J. (2004). Psychosocial adjustment, school outcomes, and romantic relationships of adolescents with same-sex parents. Child Development, 75, 1886–1898.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wald, M. S. (2006). Adults' sexual orientation and state determinations regarding placement of children. Family Law Quarterly, 40, 381–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weston, K. (1991). Families we choose: Lesbians, gays, kinship. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfson, E. (2004). Why marriage matters: America, equality and gay people's right to marry. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank the graduate students and others who have been my collaborators in the research described in this chapter: Raymond Chan, Megan Fulcher, Susan Hurt, Chandra Mason, Barbara Raboy, Stephen Russell, Joanna Scheib, Erin Sutfin, and Jennifer Wainright. Grateful acknowledgment is due to the Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues for support of the Bay Area Families Study, and to the Lesbian Health Fund of the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association for support of the Contemporary Families Study. Thanks also to all of the participating families whose invaluable contributions have made the research possible. Finally, special thanks to Debra Hope and her colleagues at the University of Nebraska for their many efforts in organizing the symposium for which this chapter was written.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Patterson, C.J. (2009). Lesbian and Gay Parents and their Children: A Social Science Perspective. In: Hope, D.A. (eds) Contemporary Perspectives on Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identities. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, vol 54. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09556-1_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics