Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms Among Sexual Minority Youth: Is Gay-Affirming Religious Affiliation a Protective Factor?

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Researchers have examined perceived discrimination as a risk factor for depression among sexual minorities; however, the role of religion as a protective factor is under-investigated, especially among sexual minority youth. Drawing on a cross-sectional study investigating campus climate at a large public university in the U.S. midwest, we examined the role of affiliation with a gay-affirming denomination (i.e., endorsing same-sex marriage) as a moderating factor in the discrimination–depression relationship among self-identified sexual minority (n = 393) and heterosexual youth (n = 1,727). Using multivariate linear regression analysis, religious affiliation was found to moderate the discrimination–depression relationship among sexual minorities. Specifically, the results indicated that the harmful effects of discrimination among sexual minority youth affiliated with denominations that endorsed same-sex marriage were significantly less than those among peers who affiliated with denominations opposing same-sex marriage or who identified as secular. In contrast, religious affiliation with gay-affirming denominations did not moderate the discrimination–depression relationship among heterosexual participants. The findings suggest that, although religion and same-sex sexuality are often seen as incompatible topics, it is important when working with sexual minority clients for clinicians to assess religious affiliation, as it could be either a risk or a protective factor, depending on the religious group’s stance toward same-sex sexuality. To promote the well-being of sexual minority youth affiliated with denominations opposed to same-sex marriage, the results suggest these faith communities may be encouraged to reconsider their position and/or identify ways to foster youth’s resilience to interpersonal discrimination.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdel-Khalek, A. M., & Naceur, F. (2007). Religiosity and its association with positive and negative emotions among college students from Algeria. Mental Health, Religion, & Culture, 10, 159–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, A. L. (1998). Strengths of gay male youth: An untold story. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 15, 55–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, S. L., & Sareen, J. (2011). Sexual orientation research and its relation to mental disorders and suicide attempts: Findings from a nationally representative sample. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56, 35–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boxer, A. M., & Cohler, B. J. (1989). The life course of gay and lesbian youth: An immodest proposal for the study of lives. Journal of Homosexuality, 17, 315–355.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • California Catholic Conference. (2008). Statements on same-sex marriage. Origins, 38, 117–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chakraborty, A., McManus, S., Brugha, T. S., Bebbington, P., & King, M. (2011). Mental health of the non-heterosexual population of England. British Journal of Psychiatry, 198, 143–148.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. (2008). Same-sex marriage and Proposition 8. Newsroom. Retrieved from http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/same-sex-marriage-and-proposition-8. Accessed 04 April 2012.

  • D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., Salter, N. P., Vasey, J. J., Starks, M. T., & Sinclair, K. O. (2005). Predicting the suicide attempts of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 35, 646–660.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A. R., Pilkington, N. W., & Hershberger, S. L. (2002). Incidence and mental health impact of sexual orientation victimization of lesbian, gay and bisexual youths in high school. School Psychology Quarterly, 17, 148–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, A. L., & Galliher, R. V. (2009). LGBQQ young adult experiences of religious and sexual identity integration. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 3, 92–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, A. L., & Galliher, R. V. (2010). Sexual minority young adult religiosity, sexual orientation conflict, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 14, 271–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R. (1975). Brief symptom inventory. Baltimore: Clinical Psychometric Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dessel, A. B., Woodford, M. R., & Warren, N. (2011). Intergroup dialogue courses on sexual orientation: Lesbian, gay and bisexual student experiences and outcomes. Journal of Homosexuality, 58, 1132–1150.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, D., Gollusk, S. E., Golberstein, E., & Hefner, J. L. (2007). Prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety, and suicidality among university students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77, 534–542.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eliason, M. J., Burke, A., van Olphen, J., & Howell, R. (2011). Complex interactions of sexual identity, sex/gender, and religious/spiritual identity on substance use among college students. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 8, 117–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G., Finch, B. K., Ryan, D. N., & Salinas, J. J. (2009). Religious involvement and depressive symptoms among Mexican-origin adults in California. Journal of Community Psychology, 37, 171–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Espelage, D. L., Aragon, S. R., Birkett, M., & Koenig, B. (2008). Homophobic teasing, psychological outcomes, and sexual orientation among high school students: What influences do parents and schools have? School Psychology Review, 37, 202–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fenaughty, J., & Harre, N. (2003). Life on the seesaw: A qualitative study of resiliency factors for young gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 45(1), 1–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finlay, B., & Walther, C. S. (2003). The relation of religious affiliation, service attendance, and other factors to homophobic attitudes among university students. Review of Religious Research, 44, 370–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, J. W. (1981). Stages of faith: The psychology of human development and the quest for meaning. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, M. W., Galinsky, M. J., & Richman, J. M. (1999). Risk, protection and resilience: Toward a conceptual framework for social work practice. Social Work Research, 23, 131–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ganzevoort, R. R., van der Laan, M., & Olsman, E. (2011). Growing up gay and religious: Conflict, dialogue, and religious identity strategies. Mental Health, Religion, & Culture, 14, 209–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, D., Gray-Stanley, J., & Ramirez-Valles, J. (2008). “The priest obviously doesn’t know that I’m gay”: The religious and spiritual journals of Latino gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 55, 411–436.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gartner, J., Larson, D. B., & Allen, G. D. (1991). Religious commitment and mental health: A review of the empirical literature. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19, 6–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • George, L. K., Ellison, C. G., & Larson, D. B. (2002). Explaining the relationships between religious involvement and health. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 190–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goss, R. E., & West, M. (Eds.). (2000). Take back the word: A queer reading of the Bible. Cleveland: The Pilgrim Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grace, A. P. (2008). The charisma and deception of reparative therapies: When medical science beds religion. Journal of Homosexuality, 55, 545–580.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, A. H., & Kerner, M. S. (1998). Self-esteem and supportiveness as predictors of emotional distress in gay male and lesbian youth. Journal of Homosexuality, 35, 25–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamblin, R. J., & Gross, A. M. (2014). Religious faith, homosexuality, and psychological well-being: A theoretical and empirical review. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 18, 67–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, J. I., Cook, S. W., & Kashubeck-West, S. (2008). Religious attitudes, internalized homophobia, and identity in gay and lesbians adults. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 12, 205–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heck, N. C., Flentje, A., & Cochran, B. N. (2011). Offsetting risks: High school gay-straight alliances and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth. School Psychology Quarterly, 26, 161–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Higher Education Research Institute. (2008). 2008 cooperative institutional research program freshman survey questionnaire. Retrieved from http://www.heri.ucla.edu/researchers/instruments/CIRP/2008SIF.PDF. Accessed 04 April 2012.

  • Hilt, L. M., Cha, C. B., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2008). Nonsuicidal self-injury in young adolescent girls: Moderators of the distress-function relationship. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 63–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, K. J. (2012). U.S. Catholic bishops reject ruling against Prop. 8. Catholic News Agency. Retrieved from http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/us-catholic-bishops-reject-ruling-against-prop.-8. Accessed 04 April 2012.

  • Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593–602.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kralovec, K., Fartacek, C., Fartacek, R., & Plöderl, M. (2012). Religion and suicide risk in lesbian, gay, and bisexual Austrians. Journal of Religion and Health, 53, 413–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lease, S. H., Horne, S. G., & Noffsinger-Frazier, N. (2005). Affirming faith experiences and psychological health for Caucasian lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 378–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levy, D. L. (2012). The importance of personal and contextual factors in resolving conflict between sexual identity and Christian upbringing. Journal of Social Service Research, 38, 56–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Longo, J., Walls, N. E., & Wisneski, H. (2012). Religion and religiosity: Protective or harmful factors for sexual minority youth? Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 16, 273–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loosier, P. S., & Dittus, P. J. (2010). Group differences in risk across three domains using an expanded measure of sexual orientation. Journal of Primary Prevention, 31, 261–272.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marshal, M. P., Dietz, L. J., Friedman, M. S., Stall, R., Smith, H. A., McGinley, J., … Brent, D. A. (2011). Suicidality and depression disparities between sexual minority and heterosexual youth: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Adolescent Health, 49, 115–123.

  • Mays, V. M., & Cochran, S. D. (2001). Mental health correlates of perceived discrimination among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1869–1876.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, M. E., & Larson, D. B. (1999). Religion and depression: A review of the literature. Twin Research, 2, 126–136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 38–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moon, D. (2004). God, sex, & politics: Homosexuality and everyday theologies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mustanski, B., Newcomb, M. E., & Garofalo, R. (2011). Mental health of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths: A developmental resiliency perspective. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 23, 204–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. E., & Mustanski, B. (2010). Internalized homophobia and internalizing mental health problems: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 1019–1029.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oswald, R. F., Cuthbertson, C., Lazarevic, V., & Goldberg, A. E. (2010). New developments in the field: Measuring community climate. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 6, 214–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pew Research Center. (2012). Religious groups’ official positions on same-sex marriage. Retrieved from http://www.pewforum.org/Gay-Marriage-and-Homosexuality/Religious-Groups-Official-Positions-on-Same-Sex-Marriage.aspx. Accessed 11 July 2013.

  • Rankin, S., Weber, G., Blumenfeld, W., & Frazer, S. (2010). 2010 state of higher education for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people. Charlotte: Campus Pride.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivers, I., & Noret, N. (2008). Well-being among same-sex- and opposite-sex-attracted youth at school. School Psychology Review, 37, 174–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rostosky, S. S., Danner, F., & Riggle, E. D. B. (2007). Is religiosity a protective factor against substance use in young adulthood? Only if you’re straight! Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 440–447.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rowen, C. J., & Malcolm, J. P. (2002). Correlates of internalized homophobia and homosexual identity formation in a sample of gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 43, 77–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, S. T. (2005). Beyond risk: Resilience in the lives of sexual minority youth. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Issues in Education, 2, 5–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saewyc, E. M., Homma, Y., Skay, C. L., Bearlinger, L. H., Resnick, M. D., & Reis, E. (2009). Protective factors in the lives of bisexual adolescents in North America. American Journal of Public Health, 99, 110–117.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schuck, K. D., & Liddle, B. J. (2001). Religious conflicts experienced by lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Psychotherapy, 5, 63–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherry, A., Adelman, A., Whilde, M. R., & Quick, D. (2010). Competing selves: Negotiating the intersection of spiritual and sexual identities. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 41, 112–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silverschanz, P., Cortina, L. M., Konik, J., & Magley, V. J. (2008). Slurs, snubs, and queer jokes: Incidence and impact of heterosexist harassment in academia. Sex Roles, 58, 179–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. B., McCullough, M. E., & Poll, J. (2003). Religiousness and depression: Evidence for a main effect and the moderating influence of stressful life events. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 614–636.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C., & Snell, P. (2009). Souls in transition: The religious and spiritual lives of young adults. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Swendsen, J. D., & Merikangas, K. R. (2000). The comorbidity of depression and substance use disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 173–189.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ueno, K. (2010). Same-sex experience and mental health during the transition between adolescence and young adulthood. Sociological Quarterly, 51, 484–510.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vrangalova, Z., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2012). Mostly heterosexual and mostly gay/lesbian: Evidence for new sexual orientation identities. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 85–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, J. J., & Longmire-Avital, B. (2013). The impact of religious faith and internalized homonegativity on resiliency for black lesbian, gay, and bisexual emerging adults. Developmental Psychology, 49, 1723–1731.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walls, N. E., Laser, J., Nickels, S. J., & Wisneski, H. (2010). Correlates of cutting behavior among sexual minority youths and young adults. Social Work Research, 34, 213–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheaton, B. (1985). Models for the stress-buffering functions of coping resources. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 26, 352–364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. A., & Chapman, M. V. (2011). Comparing health and mental health needs, service use, and barriers to services among sexual minority youths and their peers. Health and Social Work, 36, 197–206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, T., Connolly, J., Pepler, D., & Craig, W. (2005). Peer victimization, social support, and psychosocial adjustment of sexual minority adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 471–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodford, M. R., Han, Y., Craig, S., Lim, C., & Matney, M. M. (2014). Discrimination and mental health among sexual minority college students: The type and form of discrimination does matter. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 18, 142–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodford, M. R., Krentzman, A. R., & Gattis, M. N. (2012a). Alcohol and drug use among sexual minority college students and their heterosexual counterparts: The effects of experiencing and witnessing incivility and hostility on campus. Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation, 3, 11–23.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodford, M. R., Levy, D., & Walls, N. E. (2013). Sexual prejudice among Christian college students, denominational teachings, and personal religious beliefs. Review of Religious Research, 55, 105–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodford, M. R., Walls, N. E., & Levy, D. L. (2012b). Religion and endorsement of same-sex marriage: The role of syncretism between denominational teachings about homosexuality and personal religious beliefs. Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion, 8, 1–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, E. R., & Perry, B. R. (2006). Sexual identity distress, social support, and the health of gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth. Journal of Homosexuality, 51, 81–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Funding to support this study was received from the National Center on Institutional Diversity, University of Michigan and the Curtis Center, School of Social Work, University of Michigan. This article was supported by the Clinical and Translational Science Award (CTSA) program, previously through the National Center for Research Resources (NCRR) grant 1UL1RR025011, and now by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS) Grant 9U54TR000021. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. We thank Drs. Lonnie Berger, Jan Greenberg, Denise Levy, Stephanie Robert, and Eugene Walls, for reviewing earlier drafts.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Social Work, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1350 University Ave., Madison, WI, 53706-1510, USA

    Maurice N. Gattis

  2. Lyle S. Hallman Faculty of Social Work, Wilfrid Laurier University, Kitchener, ON, Canada

    Michael R. Woodford

  3. Department of Child Psychology and Education, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea

    Yoonsun Han

Authors
  1. Maurice N. Gattis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Michael R. Woodford
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Yoonsun Han
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maurice N. Gattis.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Gattis, M.N., Woodford, M.R. & Han, Y. Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms Among Sexual Minority Youth: Is Gay-Affirming Religious Affiliation a Protective Factor?. Arch Sex Behav 43, 1589–1599 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0342-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0342-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation