Top

Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology

Gepubliceerd in:

26-05-2016

Anxiety and Depression Symptom Dimensions Demonstrate Unique Relationships with the Startle Reflex in Anticipation of Unpredictable Threat in 8 to 14 Year-Old Girls

Auteurs: Brady D. Nelson, Greg Hajcak

Gepubliceerd in: Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology | Uitgave 2/2017

Abstract

There is growing evidence that heightened sensitivity to unpredictability is a core mechanism of anxiety disorders. In adults, multiple anxiety disorders have been associated with a heightened startle reflex in anticipation of unpredictable threat. Child and adolescent anxiety has been linked to an increased startle reflex across baseline, safety, and threat conditions. However, it is unclear whether anxiety in youth is related to the startle reflex as a function of threat predictability. In a sample of 90 8 to 14 year-old girls, the present study examined the association between anxiety symptom dimensions and startle potentiation during a no, predictable, and unpredictable threat task. Depression symptom dimensions were also examined given their high comorbidity with anxiety and mixed relationship with the startle reflex and sensitivity to unpredictability. To assess current symptoms, participants completed the self-report Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders and Children’s Depression Inventory. Results indicated that social phobia symptoms were associated with heightened startle potentiation in anticipation of unpredictable threat and attenuated startle potentiation in anticipation of predictable threat. Negative mood and negative self-esteem symptoms were associated with attenuated and heightened startle potentiation in anticipation of unpredictable threat, respectively. All results remained significant after controlling for the other symptom dimensions. The present study provides initial evidence that anxiety and depression symptom dimensions demonstrate unique associations with the startle reflex in anticipation of unpredictable threat in children and adolescents.

vorige artikel Neural Reactivity to Angry Faces Predicts Treatment Response in Pediatric Anxiety

To examine whether condition order (n = 48 predictable threat first; n = 42 unpredictable threat first) impacted the startle reflex, a Condition (no threat, predictable threat, unpredictable threat) X Cue (countdown vs. interstimulus interval) X Order (predictable threat first vs. unpredictable threat first) mixed-measures ANOVA was conducted with condition and cue entered as within-subjects factors and order entered as a between-subjects factor. Results indicated a Condition X Order interaction, F(2, 176) = 34.32, p < 0.001, η_p ² = 0.28. Follow-up analyses indicated that the startle reflex was greater during the unpredictable threat condition when it was presented first, F(1, 88) = 11.46, p < 0.001; however, order did not impact the startle reflex during the no threat or predictable threat conditions. Importantly, order did not moderate any relationship between anxiety or depression symptoms and the startle potentiation during the predictable or unpredictable threat condition.

Across the entire sample the startle reflex was not potentiated during the predictable threat countdown relative to the no threat countdown, but the difference between the countdown and interstimulus interval was greater during the predictable threat relative to no threat condition. Therefore, additional analyses were conducted to examine the association between anxiety and depression symptoms and startle potentiation during the countdown relative to interstimulus interval for the predictable threat and no threat conditions. Regression analyses indicated social phobia symptoms were associated with attenuated startle potentiation to the predictable threat countdown relative to interstimulus interval at a trend level, β = −0.20, p < 0.06. There were no other significant correlations between anxiety or depression symptom dimensions and startle potentiation to the no threat or predictable threat condition (ps > 0.37). Similarly, multiple regression analyses indicated that social phobia symptoms were associated with attenuated startle potentiation to the predictable threat countdown relative to interstimulus interval even after controlling for the other symptom dimensions, β = −0.30, p < 0.05. Together, these results suggest that the association between social phobia symptoms and startle potentiation to predictable threat was present regardless of the comparison condition.

Age and pubertal status, measured via the child-report Pubertal Development Scale (Petersen et al. 1988), were also examined as potential moderators of the relationship between anxiety and depression symptoms and startle potentiation to predictable or unpredictable threat. Results indicated neither developmental measure moderated the relationship between symptoms and startle potentiation (ps > 0.10).

The negative mood and negative self-esteem subscales were positively correlated with each other, but did not demonstrate bivariate relationships with startle potentiation to unpredictable threat. However, the subscales demonstrated opposing relationships with startle potentiation to unpredictable threat after controlling for the other symptom dimensions. This pattern of results is consistent with reciprocal suppressor effects, when two correlated predictor variables have the opposite relationship with a criterion variable, but these associations are obscured when each are only examined separately (MacKinnon et al. 2000; Watson et al. 2013). To verify this interpretation, additional linear regressions were conducted with just negative mood and negative self-esteem entered as simultaneous independent variables and startle potentiation to unpredictable threat entered as the dependent variable. Results indicated that greater negative self-esteem was associated with heightened startle potentiation to unpredictable threat, β = 0.31, p < 0.05, and greater negative mood was associated with attenuated startle potentiation to unpredictable threat at a trend level, β = −0.25, p < 07. Moreover, when social phobia was included as an independent variable, negative self-esteem, β = 0.27, p < 0.05, negative mood, β = −0.35, p < 0.05, and social phobia, β = 0.31, p < 0.01, were all significantly associated with startle potentiation to unpredictable threat. These results confirm that negative mood and negative self-esteem demonstrated reciprocal suppressor effects, and social phobia provided additional suppressor effects on negative mood.

As part of the overarching longitudinal study, participants and their parent were also administered the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children (Kaufman et al. 1997). In the final sample of 90 participants, four participants met criteria for current social anxiety disorder. Similar to the continuous social phobia symptom measure, participants with current social anxiety disorder demonstrated greater startle potentiation in anticipation of unpredictable threat (M = 17.78, SD = 8.46) relative to those with no social anxiety disorder (M = 6.68, SD = 10.87), F(1, 88) = 4.04, p < 0.05, η_p ² = 0.04. However, there were no group differences in startle potentiation during the predictable threat condition, F(1, 88) = 0.58, ns. These results suggest that both categorical and continuous measures of social phobia were associated with heightened sensitivity to unpredictable threat.

Aderka, I. M., Hofmann, S. G., Nickerson, A., Hermesh, H., Gilboa-Schechtman, E., & Marom, S. (2012). Functional impairment in social anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26, 393–400. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.01.003.PubMedCrossRef

Allen, N. B., Trinder, J., & Brennan, C. (1999). Affective startle modulation in clinical depression: preliminary findings. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 542–550. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00025-6.PubMedCrossRef

Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: a meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 1–24. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1.PubMedCrossRef

Barker, T. V., Reeb-Sutherland, B. C., & Fox, N. A. (2014). Individual differences in fear potentiated startle in behaviorally inhibited children. Developmental Psychobiology, 56, 133–141. doi:10.1002/dev.21096.PubMedCrossRef

Barlow, D. H. (2000). Unraveling the mysteries of anxiety and its disorders from the perspective of emotion theory. American Psychologist, 55, 1247–1263. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.11.1247.PubMedCrossRef

Baxter, A. J., Vos, T., Scott, K. M., Ferrari, A. J., & Whiteford, H. A. (2014). The global burden of anxiety disorders in 2010. Psychological Medicine, 1–12. doi:10.1017/S0033291713003243.

Beesdo, K., Knappe, S., & Pine, D. S. (2009). Anxiety and anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: developmental issues and implications for DSM-V. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 32, 483–524. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2009.06.002.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Birmaher, B., Khetarpal, S., Brent, D., Cully, M., Balach, L., Kaufman, J., et al. (1997). The screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 545–553. doi:10.1097/00004583-199704000-00018.PubMedCrossRef

Birmaher, B., Brent, D. A., Chiappetta, L., Bridge, J., Monga, S., & Baugher, M. (1999). Psychometric properties of the screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders (SCARED): a replication study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1230–1236. doi:10.1097/00004583-199910000-00011.PubMedCrossRef

Blumenthal, T. D., Cuthbert, B. N., Filion, D. L., Hackley, S., Lipp, O. V., & Van Boxtel, A. (2005). Committee report: guidelines for human startle eyeblink electromyographic studies. Psychophysiology, 42, 1–15. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00271.x.PubMedCrossRef

Boelen, P. A., & Reijntjes, A. (2009). Intolerance of uncertainty and social anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 130–135. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.04.007.PubMedCrossRef

Borelli, J. L., Sbarra, D. A., Crowley, M. J., & Mayes, L. C. (2011). Mood symptoms and emotional responsiveness to threat in school-aged children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 220–232. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.546047.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Borelli, J. L., Ruiz, S. K., Crowley, M. J., Mayes, L. C., Reyes, A. D. L., & Lewin, A. B. (2015). Children’s obsessive compulsive symptoms and fear-potentiated startle responses. Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, 6, 101–107. doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2015.06.006.CrossRef

Borkovec, T. D., & Inz, J. (1990). The nature of worry in generalized anxiety disorder: a predominance of thought activity. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 153–158. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(90)90027-G.PubMedCrossRef

Borkovec, T., Alcaine, O., & Behar, E. (2004). Avoidance theory of worry and generalized anxiety disorder. In Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Advances in Research and Practice (pp. 77–108). New York: Guilford Press.

Bosquet, M., & Egeland, B. (2006). The development and maintenance of anxiety symptoms from infancy through adolescence in a longitudinal sample. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 517–550. doi:10.1017/S0954579406060275.PubMedCrossRef

Boswell, J. F., Thompson-Hollands, J., Farchione, T. J., & Barlow, D. H. (2013). Intolerance of uncertainty: a common factor in the treatment of emotional disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69, 630–645. doi:10.1002/jclp.21965.PubMedCrossRef

Bouton, M. E., Mineka, S., & Barlow, D. H. (2001). A modern learning theory perspective on the etiology of panic disorder. Psychological Review, 108, 4–32. doi:10.1037//0033-295X.108.1.4.PubMedCrossRef

Carleton, R. N., Collimore, K. C., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2010). “It’s not just the judgements—It's that I don't know”: intolerance of uncertainty as a predictor of social anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 189–195. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.10.007.PubMedCrossRef

Chin, B., Nelson, B. D., Jackson, F., & Hajcak, G. (2016). Intolerance of uncertainty and startle potentiation in relation to different threat reinforcement rates. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 99, 79–84. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.11.006.PubMedCrossRef

Cisler, J. M., & Koster, E. H. W. (2010). Mechanisms of attentional biases towards threat in anxiety disorders: an integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 203–216. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.003.PubMedCrossRef

Cole, D. A., Peeke, L. G., Martin, J. M., Truglio, R., & Seroczynski, A. D. (1998). A longitudinal look at the relation between depression and anxiety in children and adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 451–460. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.3.451.PubMedCrossRef

Cornwell, B. R., Johnson, L., Berardi, L., & Grillon, C. (2006). Anticipation of public speaking in virtual reality reveals a relationship between trait social anxiety and startle reactivity. Biological Psychiatry, 59, 664–666. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.09.015.PubMedCrossRef

Cornwell, B. R., Heller, R., Biggs, A., Pine, D. S., & Grillon, C. (2011). Becoming the center of attention in social anxiety disorder: startle reactivity to a virtual audience during speech anticipation. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72, 942–948. doi:10.4088/JCP.09m05731blu.PubMedCrossRef

Craske, M. G., Rauch, S. L., Ursano, R., Prenoveau, J., Pine, D. S., & Zinbarg, R. E. (2009). What is an anxiety disorder? Depression and Anxiety, 26, 1066–1085. doi:10.1002/da.20633.PubMedCrossRef

Craske, M. G., Taylor, K. B. W., Waters, A. M., Epstein, A., Naliboff, B., & Ornitz, E. (2013). Elevated responding to safe conditions as a specific risk factor for anxiety versus depressive disorders: evidence from a longitudinal investigation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 315–324. doi:10.1037/a0025738.CrossRef

Cummings, C. M., Caporino, N. E., & Kendall, P. C. (2014). Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents: 20 years after. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 816–845. doi:10.1037/a0034733.PubMedCrossRef

Dahne, J., Banducci, A. N., Kurdziel, G., & MacPherson, L. (2014). Early adolescent symptoms of social phobia prospectively predict alcohol use. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 75, 929–936. doi:10.15288/jsad.2014.75.929.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Davis, M. (1998). Are different parts of the extended amygdala involved in fear versus anxiety? Biological Psychiatry, 44, 1239–1247. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(98)00288-1.PubMedCrossRef

Dichter, G. S., & Tomarken, A. J. (2008). The chronometry of affective startle modulation in unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 1–15. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.117.1.1.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Dichter, G. S., Felder, J. N., Petty, C., Bizzell, J., Ernst, M., & Smoski, M. J. (2009). The effects of psychotherapy on neural responses to rewards in major depression. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 886–897. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.06.021.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Dillon, D. G., & LaBar, K. S. (2005). Startle modulation during conscious emotion regulation is arousal-dependent. Behavioral Neuroscience, 119, 1118–1124. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.119.4.1118.PubMedCrossRef

Dugas, M. J., Buhr, K., & Ladouceur, R. (2004). The role of intolerance of uncertainty in etiology and maintenance. In R. G. Heimberg, C. L. Turk, & D. S. Mennin (Eds.), Generalized anxiety disorder: Advances in research and practice (pp. 143–163). New York: Guilford Press.

Etkin, A., & Wager, T. D. (2007). Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: a meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 1476–1488. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030504.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Fanselow, M. S. (1994). Neural organization of the defensive behavior system responsible for fear. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1, 429–438. doi:10.3758/BF03210947.CrossRef

Grillon, C. (2008). Greater sustained anxiety but not phasic fear in women compared to men. Emotion, 8, 410–413. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.3.410.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Grillon, C., & Baas, J. (2003). A review of the modulation of the startle reflex by affective states and its application in psychiatry. Clinical Neurophysiology, 114, 1557–1579. doi:10.1016/S1388-2457(03)00202-5.PubMedCrossRef

Grillon, C., Ameli, R., Foot, M., & Davis, M. (1993). Fear-potentiated startle: relationship to the level of state/trait anxiety in healthy subjects. Biological Psychiatry, 33, 566–574. doi:10.1016/0006-3223(93)90094-T.PubMedCrossRef

Grillon, C., Ameli, R., Goddard, A., Woods, S. W., & Davis, M. (1994). Baseline and fear-potentiated startle in panic disorder patients. Biological Psychiatry, 35, 431–439. doi:10.1016/0006-3223(94)90040-X.PubMedCrossRef

Grillon, C., Dierker, L., & Merikangas, K. R. (1997). Startle modulation in children at risk for anxiety disorders and/or alcoholism. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 925–932. doi:10.1097/00004583-199707000-00014.PubMedCrossRef

Grillon, C., Morgan, C. A., Davis, M., & Southwick, S. M. (1998a). Effect of darkness on acoustic startle in Vietnam veterans with PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 812–817.PubMed

Grillon, C., Morgan, C. A., Davis, M., & Southwick, S. M. (1998b). Effects of experimental context and explicit threat cues on acoustic startle in Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 1027–1036. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(98)00034-1.PubMedCrossRef

Grillon, C., Baas, J. P., Lissek, S., Smith, K., & Milstein, J. (2004). Anxious responses to predictable and unpredictable aversive events. Behavioral Neuroscience, 118, 916–924. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.118.5.916.PubMedCrossRef

Grillon, C., Baas, J. M. P., Pine, D. S., Lissek, S., Lawley, M., Ellis, V., et al. (2006). The benzodiazepine alprazolam dissociates contextual fear from cued fear in humans as assessed by fear-potentiated startle. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 760–766. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.11.027.PubMedCrossRef

Grillon, C., Lissek, S., Rabin, S., McDowell, D., Dvir, S., & Pine, D. S. (2008). Increased anxiety during anticipation of unpredictable but not predictable aversive stimuli as a psychophysiologic marker of panic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 898–904. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101581.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Grillon, C., Pine, D. S., Lissek, S., Rabin, S., Bonne, O., & Vythilingam, M. (2009). Increased anxiety during anticipation of unpredictable aversive stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder but not in generalized anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 47–53. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.12.028.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Grillon, C., Franco-Chaves, J. A., Mateus, C. F., Ionescu, D. F., & Zarate, C. A. (2013). Major depression is not associated with blunting of aversive responses: evidence for enhanced anxious anticipation. PloS One, 8, e70969. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0070969.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Grupe, D. W., & Nitschke, J. B. (2013). Uncertainty and anticipation in anxiety: an integrated neurobiological and psychological perspective. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14, 488–501. doi:10.1038/nrn3524.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Hale, W. W., Crocetti, E., Raaijmakers, Q. A. W., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2011). A meta-analysis of the cross-cultural psychometric properties of the screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders (SCARED). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 52, 80–90. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02285.x.CrossRef

Haller, S. P. W., Cohen Kadosh, K., Scerif, G., & Lau, J. Y. F. (2015). Social anxiety disorder in adolescence: how developmental cognitive neuroscience findings may shape understanding and interventions for psychopathology. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 13, 11–20. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.02.002.PubMedCrossRef

Hamm, A. O., Cuthbert, B. N., Globisch, J., & Vaitl, D. (1997). Fear and the startle reflex: blink modulation and autonomic response patterns in animal and mutilation fearful subjects. Psychophysiology, 34, 97–107. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1997.tb02420.x.PubMedCrossRef

Insel, T., Cuthbert, B., Garvey, M., Heinssen, R., Pine, D. S., Quinn, K., et al. (2010). Research domain criteria (RDoC): toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 748–751. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09091379.PubMedCrossRef

Jackson, D. C., Malmstadt, J. R., Larson, C. L., & Davidson, R. J. (2000). Suppression and enhancement of emotional responses to unpleasant pictures. Psychophysiology, 37, 515–522. doi:10.1111/1469-8986.3740515.PubMedCrossRef

Jackson, F., Nelson, B. D., & Hajcak, G. (2016). The uncertainty of errors: intolerance of uncertainty is associated with error-related brain activity. Biological Psychology, 113, 52–58. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.11.007.PubMedCrossRef

Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., et al. (1997). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children-present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 980–988. doi:10.1097/00004583-199707000-00021.PubMedCrossRef

Kaviani, H., Gray, J. A., Checkley, S. A., Raven, P. W., Wilson, G. D., & Kumari, V. (2004). Affective modulation of the startle response in depression: influence of the severity of depression, anhedonia, and anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders, 83, 21–31. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2004.04.007.PubMedCrossRef

Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005a). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 617–627. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Kessler, R., Berglund, P., & Demler, O. (2005b). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593–602. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593.PubMedCrossRef

Klein, D. N., & Riso, L. P. (1993). Psychiatric disorders: problems of boundaries and comorbidity. In Basic issues in psychopathology (pp. 19–26). New York: Guilford Press.

Kovacs, M. (1985). The Children’s depression inventory (CDI). Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 995–998.PubMed

Kujawa, A., Glenn, C. R., Hajcak, G., & Klein, D. N. (2015). Affective modulation of the startle response among children at high and low risk for anxiety disorders. Psychological Medicine, 45, 2647–2656. doi:10.1017/S003329171500063X.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Lake, J. I., & LaBar, K. S. (2011). Unpredictability and uncertainty in anxiety: a new direction for emotional timing research. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 5. doi:10.3389/fnint.2011.00055.

Lang, P. J. (1995). The emotion probe. Studies of motivation and attention. American Psychologist, 50, 372–385. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.50.5.372.PubMedCrossRef

Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1997). Motivated attention: affect, activation, and action. In Attention and orienting: Sensory and motivational processes. (pp. 97–135). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Lang, P. J., & McTeague, L. M. (2009). The anxiety disorder spectrum: fear imagery, physiological reactivity, and differential diagnosis. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 22, 5–25. doi:10.1080/10615800802478247.CrossRef

Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1998). Emotion, motivation, and anxiety: brain mechanisms and psychophysiology. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 1248–1263. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(98)00275-3.PubMedCrossRef

Langley, A. K., Falk, A., Peris, T., Wiley, J. F., Kendall, P. C., Ginsburg, G., et al. (2014). The child anxiety impact scale: examining parent- and child-reported impairment in child anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 43, 579–591. doi:10.1080/15374416.2013.817311.PubMedCrossRef

Larsen, D. K., Norton, G. R., Walker, J. R., & Stein, M. B. (2002). Analysis of startle responses in patients with panic disorder and social phobia. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 31, 156–169. doi:10.1080/165060702321138555.CrossRef

Lau, J. Y. F., Lissek, S., Nelson, E. E., Lee, Y., Roberson-Nay, R., Poeth, K., et al. (2008). Fear conditioning in adolescents with anxiety disorders: results from a novel experimental paradigm. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 94–102. doi:10.1097/chi.0b01e31815a5f01.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Lewinsohn, P. M., Gotlib, I. H., Lewinsohn, M., Seeley, J. R., & Allen, N. B. (1998). Gender differences in anxiety disorders and anxiety symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 109–117. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.1.109.PubMedCrossRef

Lishner, D., Cooter, A., & Zald, D. (2008). Addressing measurement limitations in affective rating scales: development of an empirical valence scale. Cognition & Emotion, 22, 180–192. doi:10.1080/02699930701319139.CrossRef

Lissek, S., Orme, K., Mcdowell, D. J., Johnson, L. L., Luckenbaugh, D. A., Baas, J. M., et al. (2007). Emotion regulation and potentiated startle across affective picture and threat-of-shock paradigms. Biological Psychology, 76, 124–133. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.07.002.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

MacKinnon, D. P., Krull, J. L., & Lockwood, C. M. (2000). Equivalence of the mediation, confounding and suppression effect. Prevention Science, 1, 173–181. doi:10.1023/A1026595011371.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Markon, K. E., Chmielewski, M., & Miller, C. J. (2011). The reliability and validity of discrete and continuous measures of psychopathology: a quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 856–879. doi:10.1037/a0023678.PubMedCrossRef

McLaughlin, K. A., & King, K. (2015). Developmental trajectories of anxiety and depression in early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 311–323. doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9898-1.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

McTeague, L. M., Lang, P. J., Laplante, M. C., Cuthbert, B. N., Strauss, C. C., & Bradley, M. M. (2009). Fearful imagery in social phobia: generalization, comorbidity, and physiological reactivity. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 374–382. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.09.023.PubMedCrossRef

Merikangas, K. R., Avenevoli, S., Dierker, L., & Grillon, C. (1999). Vulnerability factors among children at risk for anxiety disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 1523–1535. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00172-9.PubMedCrossRef

Merikangas, K. R., He, J., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., et al. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication-Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 980–989. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017.CrossRef

Mineka, S., & Zinbarg, R. (2006). A contemporary learning theory perspective on the etiology of anxiety disorders: It’s not what you thought it was. American Psychologist, 61, 10–26. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.1.10.PubMedCrossRef

Mineka, S., Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1998). Comorbidity of anxiety and unipolar mood disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 377–412. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.377.PubMedCrossRef

Monga, S., Birmaher, B., Chiappetta, L., Brent, D., Kaufman, J., Bridge, J., et al. (2000). Screen for child anxiety-related emotional disorders (SCARED): convergent and divergent validity. Depression and Anxiety, 12, 85–91. doi:10.1002/1520-6394(2000)12:2<85::AID-DA4>3.0.CO;2-2.PubMedCrossRef

Morgan, C. A., Grillon, C., Southwick, S. M., Davis, M., & Charney, D. S. (1995). Fear-potentiated startle in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 38, 378–385. doi:10.1016/0006-3223(94)00321-S.PubMedCrossRef

Nelson III, W. M., Politano, P. M., Finch Jr., A. J., Wendel, N., & Mayhall, C. (1987). Children’s depression inventory: normative data and utility with emotionally disturbed children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 43–48. doi:10.1097/00004583-198701000-00009.PubMedCrossRef

Nelson, B. D., Hajcak, G., & Shankman, S. A. (2015). Event-related potentials to acoustic startle probes during the anticipation of predictable and unpredictable threat. Psychophysiology, 52, 887–894. doi:10.1111/psyp.12418.PubMedCrossRef

Nelson, B. D., Kessel, E. M., Jackson, F., & Hajcak, G. (2016a). The impact of an unpredictable context and intolerance of uncertainty on the electrocortical response to monetary gains and losses. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 16, 153–163. doi:10.3758/s13415-015-0382-3.CrossRef

Nelson, B. D., Liu, H., Sarapas, C., & Shankman, S. A. (2016b). Intolerance of uncertainty mediates the relationship between panic and the startle reflex in anticipation of unpredictable threat. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology. doi:10.5127/jep.048115.

NIMH. (2011). NIMH Research Domain Criteria (RDoC). Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/research-priorities/rdoc/nimh-research-domain-criteria-rdoc.shtml.

Orne, M. T. (1962). On the social psychology of the psychological experiment: with particular reference to demand characteristics and their implications. American Psychologist, 17, 776–783. doi:10.1037/h0043424.CrossRef

Perkins, A. M., Ettinger, U., Davis, R., Foster, R., Williams, S. C. R., & Corr, P. J. (2009). Effects of lorazepam and citalopram on human defensive reactions: Ethopharmacological differentiation of fear and anxiety. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 12617–12624. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2696-09.2009.PubMedCrossRef

Petersen, A. C., Crockett, L., Richards, M., & Boxer, A. (1988). A self-report measure of pubertal status: reliability, validity, and initial norms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17, 117–133. doi:10.1007/BF01537962.PubMedCrossRef

Quevedo, K., Smith, T., Donzella, B., Schunk, E., & Gunnar, M. (2010). The startle response: developmental effects and a paradigm for children and adults. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 78–89. doi:10.1002/dev.20415.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Ramsawh, H. J., Stein, M. B., Belik, S.-L., Jacobi, F., & Sareen, J. (2009). Relationship of anxiety disorders, sleep quality, and functional impairment in a community sample. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43, 926–933. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.01.009.PubMedCrossRef

Rauch, S. L., Shin, L. M., & Wright, C. I. (2003). Neuroimaging studies of amygdala function in anxiety disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 985, 389–410. doi:10.1197/j.aem.2005.01.003.PubMedCrossRef

Ray, W. J., Molnar, C., Aikins, D., Yamasaki, A., Newman, M. G., Castonguay, L., et al. (2009). Startle response in generalized anxiety disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 26, 147–154. doi:10.1002/da.20479.PubMedCrossRef

Reeb-Sutherland, B. C., Helfinstein, S. M., Degnan, K. A., Pérez-Edgar, K., Henderson, H. A., Lissek, S., et al. (2009). Startle response in behaviorally inhibited adolescents with a lifetime occurrence of anxiety disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 610–617. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31819f70fb.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Robinson, M. D., & Clore, G. L. (2002). Belief and feeling: evidence for an accessibility model of emotional self-report. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 934–960. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.6.934.PubMedCrossRef

Robinson, O. J., Overstreet, C., Letkiewicz, A., & Grillon, C. (2012). Depressed mood enhances anxiety to unpredictable threat. Psychological Medicine, 42, 1397–1407. doi:10.1017/S0033291711002583.PubMedCrossRef

Saylor, C. F., Finch, A. J., Spirito, A., & Bennett, B. (1984). The children’s depression inventory: a systematic evaluation of psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 955–967. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.52.6.955.PubMedCrossRef

Saylor, C. F., Edwards, G. L., & McIntosh, J. A. (1987). Children’s depression inventory: reliability over repeated administrations. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 16, 339–341. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp1604_7.CrossRef

Schmitz, A., & Grillon, C. (2012). Assessing fear and anxiety in humans using the threat of predictable and unpredictable aversive events (the NPU-threat test). Nature Protocols, 7, 527–532. doi:10.1038/nprot.2012.001.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Schmitz, A., Merikangas, K., Swendsen, H., Cui, L., Heaton, L., & Grillon, C. (2011). Measuring anxious responses to predictable and unpredictable threat in children and adolescents. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 110, 159–170. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2011.02.014.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Shankman, S. A., & Gorka, S. M. (2015). Psychopathology research in the RDoC era: unanswered questions and the importance of the psychophysiological unit of analysis. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 98, 330–337. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.01.001.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Shankman, S. A., Nelson, B. D., Sarapas, C., Robison-Andrew, E. J., Campbell, M. L., Altman, S. E., et al. (2013). A psychophysiological investigation of threat and reward sensitivity in individuals with panic disorder and/or major depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 322–338. doi:10.1037/a0030747.PubMedCrossRef

Silk, J. S., Davis, S., McMakin, D. L., Dahl, R. E., & Forbes, E. E. (2012). Why do anxious children become depressed teenagers? The role of social evaluative threat and reward processing. Psychological Medicine, 42, 2095–2107. doi:10.1017/S0033291712000207.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Smucker, M. R., Craighead, W. E., Craighead, L. W., & Green, B. J. (1986). Normative and reliability data for the Children’s depression inventory. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14, 25–39. doi:10.1007/BF00917219.PubMedCrossRef

Stein, M. B., Roy-Byrne, P. P., Craske, M. G., Bystritsky, A., Sullivan, G., Pyne, J. M., et al. (2005). Functional impact and health utility of anxiety disorders in primary care outpatients. Medical Care, 43, 1164–1170. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000185750.18119.fd.PubMedCrossRef

Taubitz, L. E., Robinson, J. S., & Larson, C. L. (2013). Modulation of the startle reflex across time by unpleasant pictures distinguishes dysphoric from non-dysphoric women. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 87, 124–129. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.11.002.PubMedCrossRef

Taylor-Clift, A., Morris, B. H., Rottenberg, J., & Kovacs, M. (2011). Emotion-modulated startle in anxiety disorders is blunted by co-morbid depressive episodes. Psychological Medicine, 41, 129–139. doi:10.1017/S003329171000036X.PubMedCrossRef

Tottenham, N., Tanaka, J. W., Leon, A. C., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Hare, T. A., et al. (2009). The NimStim set of facial expressions: judgments from untrained research participants. Psychiatry Research, 168, 242–249. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.05.006.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Vaidyanathan, U., Patrick, C. J., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2009). Linking dimensional models of internalizing psychopathology to neurobiological systems: affect-modulated startle as an indicator of fear and distress disorders and affiliated traits. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 909–942. doi:10.1037/a0017222.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Vrana, S. R., Spence, E. L., & Lang, P. J. (1988). The startle probe response: a new measure of emotion? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 487–491. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.97.4.487.PubMedCrossRef

Waters, A. M., Nazarian, M., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R. E., Griffith, J. W., Naliboff, B., et al. (2014). Context and explicit threat cue modulation of the startle reflex: preliminary evidence of distinctions between adolescents with principal fear disorders versus distress disorders. Psychiatry Research, 217, 93–99. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.01.047.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Watson, D., Clark, L. A., Chmielewski, M., & Kotov, R. (2013). The value of suppressor effects in explicating the construct validity of symptom measures. Psychological Assessment, 25, 929–941. doi:10.1037/a0032781.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Whiting, S. E., Jenkins, W. S., May, A. C., Rudy, B. M., Davis, T. E., & Reuther, E. T. (2014). The role of intolerance of uncertainty in social anxiety subtypes. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70, 260–272. doi:10.1002/jclp.22024.PubMedCrossRef

Titel: Anxiety and Depression Symptom Dimensions Demonstrate Unique Relationships with the Startle Reflex in Anticipation of Unpredictable Threat in 8 to 14 Year-Old Girls
Auteurs: Brady D. Nelson
Greg Hajcak
Publicatiedatum: 26-05-2016
Uitgeverij: Springer US
Gepubliceerd in: Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology / Uitgave 2/2017
Print ISSN: 2730-7166
Elektronisch ISSN: 2730-7174
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0169-1

Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

Abstract

Log in om toegang te krijgen

Andere artikelen Uitgave 2/2017

Sex Differences in the Prevalence of Oppositional Defiant Disorder During Middle Childhood: a Meta-Analysis

How Persistent is ADHD into Adulthood? Informant Report and Diagnostic Thresholds in a Female Sample

Prenatal Reflective Functioning and Development of Aggression in Infancy: the Roles of Maternal Intrusiveness and Sensitivity

Neural Reactivity to Angry Faces Predicts Treatment Response in Pediatric Anxiety

Maternal Prenatal Psychological Distress and Preschool Cognitive Functioning: the Protective Role of Positive Parental Engagement

Child Personality Accounts for Oppositional Defiant Disorder Comorbidity Patterns