Top

Gepubliceerd in:

24-06-2022 | Original Paper

An Investigation of a Polish Version of the Parentification Inventory

Auteurs: Judyta Borchet, Lisa M. Hooper, Aleksandra Lewandowska-Walter, Piotr Połomski, Aleksandra Peplińska, Teresa Rostowska

Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Child and Family Studies | Uitgave 10/2022

Abstract

Parentification is defined as a pattern of family interactions in which children and adolescents are required to engage in adult-like roles and responsibilities typically reserved for parents. Parentification can interfere with child and adolescent development resulting in harmful outcomes in childhood and later in adulthood. Unfortunately, few measures exist for investigating and assessing parentification, with only a few measures developed and validated among Polish populations. In the current article, we report on two studies that explore the psychometric properties of an adapted version of the Parentification Inventory (PI) designed to assess caregiving among individuals who experienced varying degrees of parentification in their family of origin. The current article presents results from two non-overlapping samples (N = 693 [Study 1]; N = 252 [Study 2]) comprised of Polish emerging adults. In Study 1, the results from exploratory and confirmatory analyses demonstrated the adapted three-factor Polish version of the PI produced scores that are reliable and valid, although with significantly fewer items (22 vs. 12) than the original PI. In Study 2, the results confirmed the adapted Polish version of the PI scores were related to constructs (self-esteem and parent conflict) in theoretically expected ways. We conclude parentification is likely a culture-bound family systems construct that demands careful consideration by international researchers, practitioners, and policymakers. The psychometric properties of scores derived from the PI confirmed the multidimensional model proposed by Hooper (2009) and validated in US samples. The current studies also confirmed the PI—although with 12 items—is a suitable measure to be used with Polish families.

vorige artikel Validation of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment in Cypriot Clinical and non-Clinical Adolescents

volgende artikel The Short-Form of the Coparenting Across Family Structures Scale (CoPAFS-27): A Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Arellano, B., Mier-Chairez, J., Tomek, S., & Hooper, L. M. (2018). Parentification and language brokering: An exploratory study of the similarities and differences in their relations to continuous and dichotomous mental health outcomes [Special issue]. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 40(4), 353–373. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.40.4.07.CrossRef

Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: a theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469.PubMedCrossRef

Baggett, E., Shaffer, A., & Muetzelfeld, H. (2015). Father–Daughter parentification and young adult romantic relationships among college women. Journal of Family Issues, 36(6), 760–783. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13499759.CrossRef

Bakiera, L., & Doiczman-Łoboda, N. (2018). Funkcjonowanie dzieci, młodzieży i dorosłych w rodzinach rozłącznych przestrzennie na skutek migracji ekonomicznych [The functioning of children, adolescents, and adults in the families departed due to economic migration]. Człowiek i Społeczeństwo, 45, 109–126. https://doi.org/10.14746/cis.2018.45.6.CrossRef

Banville, D., Desrosiers, P., & Genet-Volet, Y. (2000). Translating questionnaires and inventories using a cross-cultural translation technique. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 19(3), 374–387. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.19.3.374.CrossRef

Błażek, M. (2016). Parental attitudes and parentification of children in families with limited parental care competencies. Polish Journal of Applied Psychology, 14(3), 93–108. https://doi.org/10.1515/pjap-2015-0064.CrossRef

Błażek, M., & Lewandowska-Water, A. (2017). Rozwód jako proces. Perspektywa dorosłych i dzieci [Divorce as a process. Perspective of adults and children]. Warszawa, Polska: Wydawnictwo Difin.

Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York, NY: John Wiley.CrossRef

Borchet, J., Lewandowska-Walter, A., & Rostowska, T. (2016). Parentification in late adolescence and selected features of the family system. Health Psychology Report, 4(2), 116–127. https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr.2016.55921.CrossRef

Borchet, J., & Lewandowska-Walter, A. (2017). Parentification—its direction and perceived benefits in terms of connections with late adolescents’ emotional regulation in the situation of marital conflict. Current Issues in Personality Psychology, 5(2), 113–122. https://doi.org/10.5114/cipp.2017.66092.CrossRef

Borchet, J., Lewandowska-Walter, A., Połomski, P., & Peplińska, A. (2020). Construction of a Parentification Questionnaire for youth. Health Psychology Report, 8(2), 175–188. https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr.2019.89492.CrossRef

Boszormenyi-Nagy, I., & Spark, G. M. (1973). Invisible loyalties: Reciprocity in intergenerational family therapy. Oxford, England: Harper & Row.

Burton, L. (2007). Childhood adultification in economically disadvantaged families: a conceptual model. Family Relations, 56(4), 329–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2007.00463.x.CrossRef

Byng-Hall, J. (2008). The significance of children fulfilling parental roles: Implications for family therapy. Journal of Family Therapy, 30(2), 147–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6427.2008.00423.x.CrossRef

CBOS—Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej [Public Opinion Research Center]. (2019). Rodzina—jej znaczenie i rozumienie [Family—its meaning and understanding]. https://cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2019/K_022_19.PDF.

Chase, N. (1999). An overview of theory, research, and societal issues. In N. Chase (Ed.), Burdened children (pp. 3–33). New York, NY: Guilford.

Chase, N., Deming, M., & Wells, M. (1998). Parentification, parental alcoholism, and academic status among young adults. American Journal of Family Therapy, 26(2), 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926189808251091.CrossRef

Comfrey, A. L., & Lee, H. B. (1992). A first course in factor analysis. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Cook, E. P. (2012). Understanding people in context: The ecological perspective in counseling. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

Cudjoe, E., Kwabia, D. D., Chiu, M. Y. L., & Abdullah, A. (2021). “Adding salt to wounds”: Parentification among children living with parents with mental illness during the COVID-19 pandemic and the role of social workers. Developmental Child Welfare, 3(1), 58–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/2516103221999054.CrossRef

Dimitrov, D. M. (2012). Statistical methods for validation of assessment scale data in counseling and related fields. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

DiStefano, C., Liu, J., Jiang, N., & Shi, D. (2017). Examination of the weighted root mean square residual: Evidence for trustworthiness. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 25(3), 453–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2017.1390394.CrossRef

Dyczewski, L. (1981). Rodzina polska i kierunki jej przemian [The Polish family and directions of its change]. Warszawa: Ośrodek Dokumentacji i Studiów Społecznych.

Eurostat. (2020). Youth employment by sex, age, and educational attainment level (YTH_EMPL_010) [Data set]. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/yth_empl_010/default/table?lang=en.

Fundcja Dajemy Dzieciom Siłę [Empowering Children Foundation]. (2017). Dzieci się liczą. Raport o zagrożeniach bezpieczeństwa i rozwoju dzieci w Polsce [Children matter. Report on threats to children’s safety and development in Poland]. https://fdds.pl/problem/dzieci-sie-licza-2017/.

Garber, B. D. (2021). The dynamics of the enmeshed family system ten years later: Family Court and contemporary understanding of adultification, parentification, and infantilization. Journal of the American Association of Matrimonial Lawyers, 34(1), 97–120.

Gnambs, T., & Schroeders, U. (2020). Cognitive abilities explain wording effects in the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Assessment, 27(2), 404–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191117746503.PubMedCrossRef

Greenberger, E., Chen, C., Dmitrieva, J., & Farruggia, S. P. (2003). Item-wording and the dimensionality of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: do they matter. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(6), 1241–1254. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00331-8.CrossRef

GUS—Główny Urząd Statystyczny [Statistics Poland]. (2012). Narodowy Spis Powszechny Ludności i Mieszkań 2011. Raport z wyników [National Population and Housing Census 2011. Report on results]. http://www.stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/lud_raport_z_wynikow_NSP2011.pdf.

GUS—Główny Urząd Statystyczny [Statistics Poland]. (2018). Zeszyt Metodologiczny. Badanie Budżetów Gospodarstw Domowych [Methodological Report. Household Budget Survey]. https://stat.gov.pl/download/gfx/portalinformacyjny/pl/defaultaktualnosci/5486/10/2/1/zeszyt_metodologiczny_badanie_budzetow_gospodarstw_domowych.pdf.

GUS—Główny Urząd Statystyczny [Statistics Poland]. (2020). Rocznik Demograficzny 2020 [Demographic Yearbook of Poland 2020]. https://stat.gov.pl/obszary-tematyczne/roczniki-statystyczne/roczniki-statystyczne/rocznik-demograficzny-2020,3,14.html.

Henson, R. K., & Roberts, J. K. (2006). Use of exploratory factor analysis in published research: common errors and some comment on improved practice. Educational and Psychological Measurements, 66(3), 393–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405282485.CrossRef

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. 3rd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Hooper, L. M. (2009). Parentification Inventory. (Available form L. M. Hooper, 108 Schindler Education Center, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, Iowa, 50614).

Hooper, L. M. (2012). Parentification. In R. J. R. Levesque (Ed.), Encyclopedia of adolescence (pp. 2023–2031). New York, NY: Springer.

Hooper, L. M. (2014). Assessing parentification in South American college students: A factor analytic study of a Spanish version of the Parentification Inventory. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 42(2), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2014.00047.x.CrossRef

Hooper, L. M., DeCoster, J., White, N., & Voltz, M. L. (2011). Characterizing the magnitude of the relation between self-reported childhood parentification and adult psychopathology: a meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(10), 1028–1043. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20807.PubMedCrossRef

Hooper, L. M., Doehler, K., Wallace, S. A., & Hannah, N. J. (2011). The Parentification Inventory: Development, validation and cross-validation. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 39(3), 226–241. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2010.531652.CrossRef

Hooper, L. M., L’Abate, L., Sweeney, L. G., Gianesini, G., & Jankowski, P. J. (2014). Models of psychopathology: Generational processes and relational roles. New York, NY: Springer.CrossRef

Hooper, L. M., Marotta, S. A., & Lanthier, R. P. (2008). Predictors of growth and distress following childhood parentification: A retrospective exploratory study. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 17(5), 693–705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-007-9184-8.CrossRef

Hooper, L. M., Mugoya, G. C. T., Burton, S., & Tomek, S. (2020). Psychometric evaluation of the Parentification Inventory–Swahili version with Kenyan adults: Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 48(1), 58–78. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmcd.12164.CrossRef

Hornowska, E. (2001). Testy psychologiczne. Teoria i praktyka [Psychological tests. Theory and practice]. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo SCHOLAR.

Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.CrossRef

IBM Corp. (2016). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 24.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.

Ipsos Loyalty. (2014). Przemoc w rodzinie. Występowanie i częstotliwość zgłaszania. Raport przygotowany dla Ministerstwa Spraw Wewnętrznych [Violence in the family. Occurrence and frequency of reporting. Report prepared for the Polish Interior Ministry]. https://www.niebieskalinia.pl/attachments/article/5373/Raport_przemoc_w_rodzinie_MSW_2014.pdf.

Jones, R. A., & Wells, M. (1996). An empirical study of parentification and personality. American Journal of Family Therapy, 24(2), 145–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926189608251027.CrossRef

Jurkovic, G. J. (1997). Lost childhoods: The plight of the parentified child. New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel.

Kavanaugh, M. S., Cho, C. C., & Howard, M. (2019). “I just learned by observation and trial and error”: Exploration of young caregiver training and knowledge in families living with rare neurological disorders. Child & Youth Care Forum, 48(4), 479–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-019-09490-z.CrossRef

Kerig, P. K. (2005). Revisiting the construct of boundary dissolution: A multidimensional perspective. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 5(2-3), 5–42. https://doi.org/10.1300/J135v05n02_02.CrossRef

Kuperminc, G. P., Jurkovic, G. J., & Casey, S. (2009). Relation of filial responsibility to the personal and social adjustment of Latino adolescents from immigrant families. Journal of Family Psychology, 23(1), 14–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014064.PubMedCrossRef

Lutz, H. (2010). Gender in the migratory process. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(10), 1647–1663. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2010.489373.CrossRef

Łaguna, M., Lachowicz-Tabaczek, K. & & Dzwonkowska, I. (2007). Skala samooceny SES Morrisa Rosenberga—polska adaptacja metody [SES Morris Rosenberg self-assessment scale—Polish adaptation of the metod]. Psychologia Społeczna, 2(4), 164–176.

Macfie, J., Brumariu, L. E., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2015). Parent–child role-confusion: a critical review of an emerging concept. Developmental Review, 36, 34–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.01.002.CrossRef

Maneesriwongul, W., & Dixon, J. K. (2004). Instrument translation process: A methods review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 48i(2), 175–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2004.03185.x.CrossRef

Michalak, M., & Jaros, P. J. (2014). Prawo dziecka do obojga rodziców [Child’s law for both parents]. Dziecko Krzywdzone. Teoria, Badania, Praktyka, 13(3), 11–55.

Mier-Chairez, J., Arellano, B., Tucker, S., Marquez, E., & Hooper, L. M. (2019). Theoretical, empirical, and practice literature on language brokering, and family, academic, and psychological outcomes. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 29(7), 840–860. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2019.1621791.CrossRef

Mika, P., Bergner, R. M., & Baum, M. C. (1987). The development of a scale for the assessment of parentification. Family Therapy, 14, 229–235.

Miluska, J. (2014). Kulturowa różnorodność rodziny [Family cultural diversity]. In I. Janicka & H. Liberska (Ed.), Psychologia Rodziny (pp. 369–382). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

Morales, A., & Wang, K. T. (2018). The relationship among language brokering, parent–child bonding, and mental health correlates among Latinx college students. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 40(4), 316–327. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.40.4.04.CrossRef

Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2015). Mplus user’s guide. Seventh edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén. 1998.

Noivo, E. (1993). Ethnic families and the social injuries of class, migration, gender, generation and minority group status. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 25(3), 66–75.

Nowak, M., Gawęda, A., & Janas-Kozik, M. (2012). Zjawisko eurosieroctwa a kierunki pracy terapeutycznej i leczenia psychiatrycznego—prezentacja przypadku [The Euro-orphans phenomenon and the courses in therapeutic work and psychiatric treatment—a case study]. Psychiatria Polska, 46(2), 295–304.PubMed

Nuttall, A. K., Speidel, R., & Valentino, K. (2019). Expanding and extending the role reversal construct in early childhood. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(11), 3132–3145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01490-w.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Nuttall, A. K., & Valentino, K. (2017). An ecological-transactional model of generational boundary dissolution across development. Marriage & Family Review, 53(2), 105–150.

Nuttall, A. K., Valentino, K., Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2021). Contextualizing children’s caregiving responses to interparental conflict: Advancing assessment of parentification. Journal of Family Psychology, 35(3), 276–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000646.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Olearczyk, T. E. (2001). Wychowawcze funkcjonowanie współczesnej rodziny polskiej [Educational functioning of the modern Polish family]. Częstochowa: EDUCATOR.

Osborne, J. W. (2014). Best Practices in Exploratory Factor Analysis. Scotts Valley, CA: CreateSpace Independent Publishing.

Osborne, J. W. (2015). What is rotating in exploratory factor analysis? Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 20(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.7275/hb2g-m060.CrossRef

Peris, T. S., Goeke-Morey, M. C., Cummings, E. M., & Emery, R. E. (2008). Marital conflict and support seeking by parents in adolescence: Empirical support for the parentification construct. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(4), 633–642. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012792.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and adolescent self-image. New York, NY: Princeton University Press.CrossRef

Rostowska, T., & Borchet, J. (2016). Proces parentyfikacji w kontekście teorii systemowej [The parentification process in the context of family systems theory]. Roczniki Pedagogiczne, 8(3), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.18290/rped.2016.8%2844%29.3-1.CrossRef

Sammut-Scerri, C., Vetere, A., & Abela, A. (2020). Looking back on childhood: Women’s experience of triangulation in the context of domestic violence. Contemporary Family Therapy, 42(3), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-019-09530-9.CrossRef

Schier, K. (2010). Gdy dziecko staje się rodzicem”- odwrócona troska, czyli zjawisko parentyfikacji w rodzinie [When a child becomes a parent - reversed care, the phenomenon of parentification in the family]. W: B. Tryjarska (red.), Bliskość w rodzinie. Więzi w dzieciństwie a zaburzenia w dorosłości [Closeness in the family. Ties in childhood and disorders in adulthood] (s. 63–80). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.

Schier, K. (2014). Dorosłe dzieci. Psychologiczna problematyka odwrócenia ról w rodzinie [Adult children. Psychological issues of reversing roles in the family]. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe SCHOLAR.

Sireci, S. G., & Berberoglu, G. (2000). Using bilingual respondents to evaluate translated–adapted items. Applied Measurement in Education, 13(3), 229–248. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324818AME1303_1.CrossRef

Szymańczak, J. (2015). Alternative care in Poland. Analizy Biura Analiz Sejmowych, 16, 1–9.

Szymańczak, J. (2016). Children “taken” from their parents: the reasons for putting children in foster care in Poland. Analizy Biura Analiz Sejmowych, 5, 1–7.

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Allyn & Bacon.

Thompson, B., & Daniel, L. G. (1996). Factor analytic evidence for the construct validity of scores: A historical overview and some guidelines. Educational and Psychological Measurements, 56(2), 197–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164496056002001.CrossRef

United States Census Bureau (2013). Housing and Urban Development and Census Bureau Expand Access to Detailed Information on Nation’s Housing. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2013/cb13-04.html.

Van Loon, L. M. A., Van de Ven, M. O. M., Van Doesum, K. T. M., Hosman, C. M. H., & Witteman, C. L. M. (2015). Parentification, stress, and problem behavior of adolescents who have a parent with mental health problems. Family Process, 56(1), 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12165.PubMedCrossRef

Walczak, B. (2009). Dziecko w sytuacji rozłąki migracyjnej [Children separated by migration]. In M. Duszczyk & M. Lesińska eds., Współczesne migracje: dylematy Europy i Polski [Contemporary migration: Polish and European dilemmas] (pp. 149–173). Warszawa: Petit.

Walczak, B. (2014). Dziecko, rodzina i szkoła wobec migracji rodzicielskich: 10 lat po akcesji do Unii Europejskiej [Child, family and school in the face of parental migration: 10 years after the accession to the European Union]. Warszawa: Pedagogium.

Wei, H.-S., Shih, A.-T., Chen, Y.-F., & Hong, J. S. (2021). The impact of adolescent parentification on family relationship and civic engagement. Journal of Social Work, 21(6), 1413–1432. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017320955249.CrossRef

Wells, M., Glickauf-Hughes, C., & Jones, R. (1999). Codependency: A grassroots construct’s relationship to shame-proneness, lower self-esteem, and childhood parentification. American Journal of Family Therapy, 27(1), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/019261899262104.CrossRef

White, A. (2009). Family migration from small-town Poland: a livelihood strategy approach. In K. Burrell (Ed.), Polish Migration to the UK in the New European Union: After 2004 (pp. 67–86). Aldershot: Ashgate.

Williams, K. (2015). Risk and resilience in emerging adults with childhood parentification [Doctoral Dissertation, University of Windsor]. Electronic Theses and Dissertations. https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd/5677.

Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127.CrossRef

Żarczyńska-Hyla, J., Zdaniuk, B., Piechnik-Borusowska, J., & Kromolicka, B. (2019). Parentification in the experience of Polish adolescents. The role of socio-demographic factors and emotional consequences for parentified youth. The New Educational Review, 55, 135–146. https://doi.org/10.15804/tner.2019.55.1.11.CrossRef

Titel: An Investigation of a Polish Version of the Parentification Inventory
Auteurs: Judyta Borchet
Lisa M. Hooper
Aleksandra Lewandowska-Walter
Piotr Połomski
Aleksandra Peplińska
Teresa Rostowska
Publicatiedatum: 24-06-2022
Uitgeverij: Springer US
Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Child and Family Studies / Uitgave 10/2022
Print ISSN: 1062-1024
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-2843
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02338-6

Andere artikelen Uitgave 10/2022

A Lot of Warmth and a Bit of Control? How Parenting Mediates the Relationship Between Parental Personality and Their Children’s Mental Health Problems

Open Access
Original Paper

Raising Children in the Context of Rapid Social Change: Parenting Self-Efficacy of South Korean Mothers

Open Access
Original Paper

Author Correction: Assessing Adolescents’ Information Management with Mothers and Fathers: A Brief Report

Open Access
Author Correction

Mothers’ Emotional Reactions towards Chinese Preschoolers’ Behavioral Problems: Examining the Specificity of Emotions and Contexts

Original Paper

Perceived Parental Monitoring and Online Deviant Behavior Among Chinese Adolescents: a Moderated Mediation Model

Original Paper

Black Parenting Couples’ Ethnic-Racial Socialization Profiles: Associations with Sociodemographic and Race-Related Correlates

Original Paper