It is well-established that parental involvement, support, and protection are related to better wellbeing in adolescents (Khaleque,
2013). Some parents apply such high levels of protection (i.e., overprotection), that it no longer fits with the developmental needs of the child (Bernstein & Triger
2010). Overprotection is theorized to have lasting harmful effects throughout a child’s life, as it may insufficiently prepare adolescents for adulthood through an undermined development of autonomy and feelings of competence (Ungar,
2009). Currently, there is limited research available on the long-term effects of overprotection on adolescent well-being (De Roo et al.,
2022). Moreover, some studies report positive associations between too supportive, protective parenting practices and adolescent functioning (e.g., Fingerman et al.,
2012), raising the question whether overprotection may relate to better functioning in adolescents, especially for specific domains of functioning. Longitudinal studies, differentiating between fathers and mothers, and including
both adaptive and maladaptive outcomes of adolescent functioning may explain the heterogeneity of results between studies, but are currently lacking. This preregistered longitudinal study investigates associations between maternal and paternal perceived overprotection in early adolescence (mean age 11) and the development of (mal)adaptive psychological, academic, and social functioning throughout adolescence (11 to 16 years).
Parental Overprotection and (Mal)Adaptive Adolescent Functioning
Adolescence, referring to the transition from childhood to adulthood, has often been depicted as a period of “storm and stress” (Arnett,
1999); a stage in which many psychological, social, biological, and cognitive developmental changes happen as a result of, for example, increasing mood instability (Maciejewski et al.,
2017), or increasing autonomy (Galambos & Costigan,
2003). These changes may have significant implications for different aspects of adolescent development. For example, throughout adolescence, levels of psychological problems, such as internalizing problems, generally tend to increase (Lunetti et al.,
2022). Research on social behaviors is less consistent. Antisocial behavior in general shows a peak in mid-adolescence as a result of increasing participation in risk-taking activities (Moffitt,
2006), however, specific antisocial behaviors, such as physical aggression, have been found to decrease throughout adolescence (Bongers et al.,
2003). Research on the development of prosocial behavior reported decreases, increases or no changes throughout adolescence (Carlo et al.,
2015). On the academic level, different developmental factors, for example school stage (transition from educational levels) (Martin et al.,
2015), have been suggested to be related to decreases in academic achievement. Specifically, adolescents may experience the changes in social and learning environment, teachers, and friends as stressful, which may negatively affect their academic motivation and performances (Martin et al.,
2015).
Together with certain transitions that take place (i.e., moving to secondary education), adolescence is characterized by a growing desire for autonomy and independence. Over time, adolescents become more independent of their parents during adolescence as they spend an increasing amount of time outside the family context (separation-individuation theory; Blum,
2004). An autonomy supportive environment allows adolescents to grow, to curiously explore their environment and pursue activities that provide challenge and satisfaction (Soenens et al.,
2010). In this way, basic psychological needs of adolescents (such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness) are fulfilled, which promotes adolescents’ well-being on various domains of functioning, including psychological, academic, and social functioning (Self-Determination Theory; Ryan & Deci,
2002). The effects may be lasting, as better functioning on these domains allows adolescents to develop skills that are required for success in adulthood (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, & Medicine,
2020).
Overprotection may negatively affect various domains of adolescent functioning through hampering adolescents’ need for autonomy and feelings of competence. In this study, overprotection is defined as overprotective, anxious parenting with a tendency for control attempts (Young et al.,
2013). Overprotective parents try to ensure their child’s safety and well-being by being excessively involved in their child’s daily activities and experiences (De Roo et al.,
2022). Regarding psychological functioning, as parental autonomy granting and support for independence facilitates self-efficacy and confidence (McLeod et al.,
2007), overprotection may diminish adolescents’ self-efficacy and coping behaviors, thereby increasing psychological problems, such as internalizing problems (Segrin et al.,
2013). In terms of academic functioning, autonomy limiting parenting behaviors may hamper adolescent’s own successful time management and decision-making (Lareau,
2011), and reduce intrinsic motivation and increase extrinsic motivation (Schiffrin et al.,
2014). Moreover, social functioning may be negatively affected by overprotection. Overprotective parents tend to be more anxious that something will happen to their child and consequently limit their child’s autonomy by forbidding them to do things that their peers are allowed to do (Markus,
2003). In this way, overprotection may elicit more difficulties within peer-relationships, because these adolescents get less opportunities to independently develop healthy relationships. In turn, adolescents may show less positive social behaviors towards their peers, such as prosocial behaviors (i.e., helping, sharing and comforting; Eisenberg et al.,
2015). Overprotection (through prohibition and disapproval of friendships) could also be linked to negative social behaviors, such as antisocial behavior (e.g., Keijsers et al.,
2012). Together, a large amount of empirical studies support the abovementioned notion that overprotection may hinder psychological, academic, and social functioning in adolescents.
Drawing on the background of positive psychology, the Two-Continua Model of Keyes (Keyes,
2014) stresses that the absence of problems is not equivalent to better functioning. Rather, functioning refers to a multidimensional concept of “a state of complete physical, mental and social functioning” (World Health Organization,
2006) based on two dimensions: The absence or presence of negative outcomes and the absence or presence of positive outcomes. A better picture of overall functioning is retrieved by examining the wide range of maladaptive and adaptive dimensions of functioning (Arslan et al.,
2021; Westerhof & Keyes,
2010). Hence, this study will address adolescent functioning in terms of maladaptive (i.e., internalizing problems, antisocial behavior) and adaptive (i.e., academic achievement, prosocial behavior) functioning.
One open question in the literature is whether overprotection might in fact also be related to better functioning, especially for adolescents’ academic functioning. A small proportion of studies found that sometimes too much parental support, involvement or protection were related to positive functioning, such as better academic achievement and more motivation at school (e.g., Fingerman et al.,
2012). Different explanations have been suggested for these positive associations. For instance, helicopter parenting (i.e., overinvolved, overprotective parenting) can occur within warm or highly controlled family contexts, and parts of associations between helicopter parenting and child adjustment may be explained by the level of other positive or negative parenting behaviors that children experience (Rote et al.,
2020). In this study it will be taken into account that overprotection may be differentially related with adolescent functioning when the level of parental warmth and rejection are accounted for.