Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Studies on identity development in adolescence: An overview of research and some new data

  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The fundamental developmental hypothesis of the identity status model is that as adolescents become older they undergo progressive developmental shifts in identity status: from diffusion to foreclosure or moratorium, from foreclosure to moratorium, and from moratorium to identity achievement. In Study I we give an overview of identity status studies carried out during the period 1966–1993 and show that progressive developmental trends (PDTs) are found in most of these studies. However, they usually involve progressive developmental trends in one of the higher or lower statuses (PDT 1), while only a small minority involve systematic progressive developmental trends, i.e., in at least three statuses (PDT≥3). It is easier to show progressive developmental trends with separate measures for commitment and exploration than with identity status classification. Study II reports on our own research into relational identity, measured with a new instrument: the Utrecht-Groningen Identity Development Scale (U-GIDS). Application of the U-GIDS allows the construction of four statuses: diffusion, moratorium, closed commitment and achieving commitment. For these four statuses progressive developmental trends were found for relational identity in both one of the higher and one of the lower statuses. The four statuses of our model display exactly the same connection with psychological well-being as the statuses of Marcia's model. The high commitment statuses show the highest level of psychological well-being, followed by the diffusions, while the moratoriums are the least happy. This result offers a new perspective on moratorium as a high identity status. Finally it was found that the differences in psychological well-being among the statuses become greater as adolescents become older.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abraham, K. G. (1986). Ego-identity differences among Anglo-American and Mexican-American adolescents.J. Early Adolesc. 9: 151–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, G. R., and Fitch, S. A. (1982). Ego stage and identity status development: A crosssequential analysis.J. Personal. Social Psychol. 43: 574–583.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, G. R., and Jones, R. M. (1983). Female adolescents' identity development: Age comparisons and perceived child-rearing experience.Develop. Psychol. 19: 249–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, G. R., Ryan, J. H., Hoffman, J. J., Dobson, W R., and Nielsen, E. C. (1984). Ego identity status conformity behavior, and personality in late adolescence.J. Personal. Social Psychol. 47: 1091–1104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, G. R., Shea, J. A. and Fitch, S. A. (1979). Toward the development of an objective assessment of ego identity status.J. Youth Adolesc. 8: 223–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Archer, S. L. (1982). The lower age boundaries of identity development.Child Develop. 53: 1551–1556.

    Google Scholar 

  • Archer, S. L. (1985). Career and/or family.Youth and Society 16: 289–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Archer, S. L. (1989). Gender differences in identity development: issues of process, domain and timing.J. Adolesc. 12: 117–138.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blustein, D. L., and Philips, S. D. (1990) Relation between ego identity statuses and decisionmaking styles.J. Counsel. Psychol. 37: 160–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bosma, H. (1985).Identity Development in Adolescence. Doctoral dissertation, Groningen.

  • Bosma, H. (1992). Identity in adolescence: Managing commitments. In Adams, G. R., Gullotta, T. P., and Montemayor, R. (eds.),Adolescent Identity Formation. Sage, Newbury Park, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cantril, H. (1965).The Pattern of Human Concerns. Rutgers University Press, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, E., Adams, G. R., and Dobson, W R. (1984) Familial correlates of identity formation in late adolescence: A study of the predictive utility of connectedness and individuality in family relations.J. Youth Adolesc. 13: 509–525.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, J. W., and Nicholls, J. G. (1976). Occupational identity status, occupational preference, and field dependence in Maori and Pakena boys.J. Cross-Cult. Psychol. 7: 61–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Côté, J. E., and Levine, C. (1983). Marcia and Erikson: the relationships among ego identity status, neuroticism, dogmatism and purpose in life.J. Youth Adolesc. 12: 43–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Côté, J. E., and Levine, C. (1988). A critical examination of the ego identity status paradigm.Develop. Rev. 8: 147–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craig-Bray, L., Adams, G. R., and Dobson, W R. (1988). Identity formation and social relations during late adolescence.J. Youth Adolesc. 17: 173–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dellas, M., and Jernigan, L. P. (1981). Development of an objective instrument to measure identity status in terms of occupation, crisis and commitment.Educat. Psychol. Meas. 41: 1039–1050.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dellas, M., and Jernigan, L. R. (1987). Occupational identity status development, gender comparisons, and internal-external control in first-year air force cadets.J. Youth Adolesc. 16: 587–600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enright, R. D., Lapsley, D. U., Drivas, A. E., and Fehr, L. A. (1980). Parental influences on the development of adolescent autonomy and identity.J. Youth Adolesc. 9: 529–545.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fannin, P. M. (1979) The relation between ego-identity status and sex-role attitude, work-role salience, atypicality of major, and self-esteem in college women.J. Vocat. Behav. 14: 12–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitch, S. A., and Adams, G. R. (1983). Ego identity and intimacy status: replication and extension.Develop. Psychol. 19: 839–845.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frégeau, D. L., and Barker, M. (1986). A Measurement of the process of adolescence: standardization and interpretation.Adolescence 21: 913–919.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freilino, M. K., and Hummel, R. (1985). Achievement and identity in college-age vs. adult women students.J. Youth Adolesc. 14: 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gavaghan, M. P., and Roach, J. E. (1987). Ego identity development of adolescents with cancer.J. Pediat. Psychol. 12: 203–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, D. P. (1978).Manual of the General Health Questionnaire. Horsham, General Practice Research Unit.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grotevant, H. D., and Thorbecke, W. L. (1982). Sex differences in styles of occupational identity formation in late adolescence.Develop. Psychol. 18: 396–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, L. B. (1980). Inner space and outer space identity in contemporary females.Psychiatry 43: 1–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, L. B. (1982). Assessment of identity status in college women using outer space and inner space interviews.Sex Roles 8: 557–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, R. M., and Hartmann, B. R. (1988). Ego identity: developmental differences and experimental substance use among adolescents.J. Adolesc. 11: 347–360.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, R. M., and Streitmatter, J. L. (1987). Validity and reliability of the eom-eis for early adolescents.Adolescence 22: 647–659.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kapfhammer, H. P., Neumeier, R., and Scherer, J. (1993). Identitätsstatus im Übergang von Jugend und jungem Erwachsenenalter: Eine empirische vergleichsstudie bei psychiatrischen Patienten und gesunden Kontrollprobanden.Prax. Kinderpsychol. Kinderpsychiat. 42: 68–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kienhorst, C., Wilde, E. J. de, Bout, J. van den, and Diekstra, R. (1990). Psychometrische eigenschappen van een aantal zelfrapportage-vragenlijsten over “(on)welbevinden”.Ned Tijdschr. Psychol. 45: 122–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroger, J. (1988). A longitudinal study of ego identity status interview domains.J. Adolesc. 11: 49–64.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamke, L. K., and Peyton, K. G. (1988). Adolescent sex-role orientation and ego identity.J. Adolesc. 11: 105–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status.J. Personal. Social Psychol. 3: 551–558.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcia, J. E. (1967). Ego identity status: relationship to change in self-esteem, “general maladjustment,” and authoritarianism.J. Personal. 35: 118–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcia, J. E. (1976). Identity six years after: A follow-up study.J. Youth Adolesc. 5: 145–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In Adelson, J. (Ed.),Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcia, J. E. (1989). Identity and intervention.J. Adolesc. 12: 401–410.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marcia, J. E. (1993). The ego identity status approach to ego identity. In Marcia, J. E., Waterman, A. S., Matteson, D. R., Archer, S., and Orlofsky, J. L. (Eds.),Ego Identity. Springer Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcia, J. E., and Friedman, M. L. (1970). Ego identity status in college women.J. Personal. 38: 249–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcia, J. E., Waterman, A. S., Matteson, D. R., Archer, S., and Orlofsky, J. L. (Eds.). (1993).Ego Identity. Springer Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matteson, D. R. (1977). Exploration and commitment: Sex differences and methodological problems in the use of identity status categories.J. Youth Adolesc. 6: 353–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meeus, W., (1993a). Occupational identity development, school performance, and social support in adolescence.Adolescence 28: 809–819.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meeus, W., (1993b). De psychosociale ontwikkeling van adolescenten. In Meeus, W. and Hart, H. 't (Eds.),Jongeren in Nederland. Een nationaal survey naar ontwikkeling in de adolescentie en naar intergenerationele overdracht. Academische uitgeverij, Amersfoort.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meeus, W., and Deković, M. (1995). Identity development, parental and peer support in adolescence: Results of a national Dutch survey.Adolescence 30: 931–945

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meeus, W., and Hart, H. 't (Eds.) (1993).Jongeren in Nederland. Een nationaal survey naar ontwikkeling in de adolescentie en naar intergenerationele overdracht. Academische uitgeverij, Amersfoort.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meilman, P. W. (1979). Cross-sectional age changes in ego identity status during adolescence.Develop. Psychol. 15: 230–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melgosa, J. (1987). Development and validation of the occupational identity status.J. Adolesc. 10: 385–397.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munro, G., and Adams, G. R. (1977). Ego-identity formation in college students and working youth.Develop. Psychol. 13: 523–524.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neimeyer, G., and Metzler, A. (1987). The development of vocational structures.J. Vocat. Behav. 30: 16–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orlofsky, J. L. (1978). Identity formation, nAchievement, and fear of success in college men and women.J. Youth Adolesc. 7: 49–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oshman, H., and Manosevitz, M. (1974). The impact of the identity crisis on the adjustment of late adolescent males.J. Youth Adolesc. 3: 207–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J., (1992). The multigroup ethic identity measure.J. Adolesc. Res. 7: 156–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J., and Alipuria, L. (1990). Ethnic identity in college students from four ethnic groups.J. Adolesc. 13: 171–183.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J., and Chavira, V (1992). Ethnic identity and self-esteem: an exploratory longitudinal study.J. Adolesc. 15: 271–281.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J., and Tarver, S. (1988). Ethnic identity search and commitment in black and white eighth graders.J. Early Adolesc. 8: 265–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prager, K. J. (1986). Identity development, age, and college experience in women.J. Gen. Psychol. 147: 31–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Protinsky, H. (1975). Eriksonian ego identity in adolescents.Adolescence 10: 428–432.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Protinsky, H., and Wilkerson, J. (1986). Ego identity, egocentrism, and formal operations.Adolescence 21: 461–166.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raskin, P. M. (1986). The relationship between identity and intimacy in early adulthood.J. Gen. Psychol. 147: 167–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, J. E. (1964). Relationship of ego identity to psychosocial effectiveness.Psychol. Rep. 15: 815–825.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotheram-Borus, M. J. (1989). Ethnic differences in adolescents' identity status and associated behavior problems.J. Adolesc. 12: 361–374.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothman, K. M. (1984). Multivariate analysis of the relationship of personal concerns to adolescent ego identify status.Adolescence 19: 713–727.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schenkel, S., and Marcia, J. E. (1972). Attitudes toward premarital intercourse in determining ego identity status in college women.J. Personal. 3: 472–482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schiedel, D. G., and Marcia, J. E. (1985). Ego identity, intimacy, sex role orientation, and gender.Develop. Psychol. 21: 149–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simmons, D. D. (1970). Development of an objective measure of identity achievement status.J. Project. Techn. Personal. Assess. 34: 241–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skoe, E. E., and Marcia, J. E. (1991). A measure of care-based morality and its relation to ego identity.Merrill-Palmer Quart. 37: 289–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, C. M., and Van Horn, K. R. (1989). Identity and death anxiety.Adolescence 24: 321–326.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Streitmatter, J. L. (1988). Ethnicity as a mediating variable of early adolescent identity development.J. Adolesc. 11: 335–346.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Streitmatter, J. (1993). Gender differences in identity development: an examination of longitudinal data.Adolescence 28: 55–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tesch, S. A., and Cameron, K. A. (1987). Openness to experience and development of adult identity.J. Personal. 55: 615–630.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorbecke, W., and Grotevant, H. D. (1982). Gender differences in adolescent interpersonal identity formation.J. Youth Adolesc. 11: 479–492.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, J. A. (1987). Formal operations and ego identity in adolescence.Adolescence 22: 23–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waterman, A. S. (1982). Identity development from adolescence to adulthood: An extension of theory and a review of research.Develop. Psychol. 18: 342–358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waterman, A. S. (1993). Developmental perspectives on identity formation: from adolescence to adulthood. In Marcia, J. E., Waterman, A. S., Matteson, D. R., Archer, S., and Orlofsky, J. L. (Eds.),Ego Identity. Springer Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waterman, A. S., Geary, P. S., and Waterman, C. K. (1974). Longitudinal study of changes in ego identity status from the freshman to the senior year at college.Develop. Psychol. 10: 387–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waterman, A. S., and Goldman, J. A. (1976). A longitudinal study of ego identity development at a liberal arts college.J. Youth Adolesc. 5: 361–369.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waterman, A. S., and Waterman, C. K. (1971). A longitudinal study of changes in ego identity status during the freshman year at college.Develop. Psychol. 5: 167–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitbourne, S. K., and Tesch, S. A. (1985). A Comparison of identity and intimacy statuses in college students and alumni.Develop. Psychol. 21: 1039–1044.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Youth, Family and Life Course, Utrecht University, Postbox 80140, 3508, TC Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Wim Meeus (Professor of Adolescent Psychology)

Authors
  1. Wim Meeus
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

This research was supported by a grant from the Dutch Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) to the Utrecht Study on Adolescent Development (USAD) 1991–1997.

Research interests include personality and social development in adolescence.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Meeus, W. Studies on identity development in adolescence: An overview of research and some new data. J Youth Adolescence 25, 569–598 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537355

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537355

Keywords

Search

Navigation