Abstract
A growing body of evidence shows that gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is an addictive substance. Its precursors gammabutyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD) show the same properties and may pose even more risks due to different pharmacokinetics. There are indications that problematic GHB use is increasing in the European Union. This review investigates the existing literature on the neurochemistry of GHB and its precursors, their acute toxicity, addiction potential and withdrawal, the proposed molecular mechanism underlying addiction and the treatment of withdrawal and addiction. Current evidence shows that GHB and its precursors are highly addictive, both in humans and animals, probably through a GABAB receptor related mechanism. Severity of withdrawal symptoms can be considered as a medical emergency. Recent studies suggest that benzodiazepines are not very effective, showing a high treatment resistance, whereas detoxification with pharmaceutical GHB proved to be successful. However, relapse in GHB use is frequent and more research is warranted on relapse prevention. This might aid medical practitioners in the field and improve general understanding of the severity of addiction to GHB, GBL and 1,4-BD.
Keywords: GHB, GBL, 1, 4-BD, GABA, dopamine, illicit drugs, addiction, dependence, withdrawal.
Current Pharmaceutical Design
Title:GHB, GBL and 1,4-BD Addiction
Volume: 20 Issue: 25
Author(s): Tibor M. Brunt, Jan G. C. van Amsterdam and Wim van den Brink
Affiliation:
Keywords: GHB, GBL, 1, 4-BD, GABA, dopamine, illicit drugs, addiction, dependence, withdrawal.
Abstract: A growing body of evidence shows that gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is an addictive substance. Its precursors gammabutyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD) show the same properties and may pose even more risks due to different pharmacokinetics. There are indications that problematic GHB use is increasing in the European Union. This review investigates the existing literature on the neurochemistry of GHB and its precursors, their acute toxicity, addiction potential and withdrawal, the proposed molecular mechanism underlying addiction and the treatment of withdrawal and addiction. Current evidence shows that GHB and its precursors are highly addictive, both in humans and animals, probably through a GABAB receptor related mechanism. Severity of withdrawal symptoms can be considered as a medical emergency. Recent studies suggest that benzodiazepines are not very effective, showing a high treatment resistance, whereas detoxification with pharmaceutical GHB proved to be successful. However, relapse in GHB use is frequent and more research is warranted on relapse prevention. This might aid medical practitioners in the field and improve general understanding of the severity of addiction to GHB, GBL and 1,4-BD.
Export Options
About this article
Cite this article as:
Brunt M. Tibor, Amsterdam G. C. van Jan and Brink van den Wim, GHB, GBL and 1,4-BD Addiction, Current Pharmaceutical Design 2014; 20 (25) . https://dx.doi.org/10.2174/13816128113199990624
DOI https://dx.doi.org/10.2174/13816128113199990624 |
Print ISSN 1381-6128 |
Publisher Name Bentham Science Publisher |
Online ISSN 1873-4286 |
Call for Papers in Thematic Issues
"Tuberculosis Prevention, Diagnosis and Drug Discovery"
The Nobel Prize-winning discoveries of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and streptomycin have enabled an appropriate diagnosis and an effective treatment of tuberculosis (TB). Since then, many newer diagnosis methods and drugs have been saving millions of lives. Despite advances in the past, TB is still a leading cause of infectious disease mortality ...read more
?Revolutionizing Cancer Treatment: Nano-Therapeutics Targeting Tumor Microenvironment?
This thematic issue explores the forefront of cancer treatment, centering on the groundbreaking potential of nano-therapeutics meticulously designed to target the tumor microenvironment. At its core, the issue aims to unravel the latest advancements in nanotechnology, showcasing innovative materials, formulations, and delivery systems that hold promise for redefining cancer therapeutics. ...read more
Current Pharmaceutical challenges in the treatment and diagnosis of neurological dysfunctions
Neurological dysfunctions (MND, ALS, MS, PD, AD, HD, ALS, Autism, OCD etc..) present significant challenges in both diagnosis and treatment, often necessitating innovative approaches and therapeutic interventions. This thematic issue aims to explore the current pharmaceutical landscape surrounding neurological disorders, shedding light on the challenges faced by researchers, clinicians, and ...read more
Emerging and re-emerging diseases
Faced with a possible endemic situation of COVID-19, the world has experienced two important phenomena, the emergence of new infectious diseases and/or the resurgence of previously eradicated infectious diseases. Furthermore, the geographic distribution of such diseases has also undergone changes. This context, in turn, may have a strong relationship with ...read more
- Author Guidelines
- Graphical Abstracts
- Fabricating and Stating False Information
- Research Misconduct
- Post Publication Discussions and Corrections
- Publishing Ethics and Rectitude
- Increase Visibility of Your Article
- Archiving Policies
- Peer Review Workflow
- Order Your Article Before Print
- Promote Your Article
- Manuscript Transfer Facility
- Editorial Policies
- Allegations from Whistleblowers
- Announcements
Related Articles
-
Comparison of the Mean Minimum Dose of Bolus Oxytocin for Proper Uterine Contraction during Cesarean Section
Current Clinical Pharmacology Increased Salt Sensitivity in Obese Hypertension: Role of the Sympathetic Nervous System
Current Hypertension Reviews Tumor Angiogenesis and VEGFR-2: Mechanism, Pathways and Current Biological Therapeutic Interventions
Current Drug Metabolism Conformation and Bioactivity. Design and Discovery of Novel Antihypertensive Drugs
Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry Therapeutic Agents for COVID-19: an Overview
Current Drug Therapy A Stress Repair Mechanism That Maintains Vertebrate Structure During Stress
Cardiovascular & Hematological Disorders-Drug Targets A Critical Review of Atypical Antipsychotic Utilization: Comparing Monotherapy with Polypharmacy and Augmentation
Current Medicinal Chemistry Stent-Based Delivered Anti-Proliferative Drugs in the Prevention of Coronary Stent Restenosis
Current Medicinal Chemistry - Cardiovascular & Hematological Agents Peptidergic Regulation of Pheochromocytoma
Current Pharmacogenomics TNF alpha Inhibition as Treatment Modality for Certain Rheumatologic and Gastrointestinal Diseases
Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders - Drug Targets Hydrophilic Dual Vitamin E-Like Antioxidants as Modulators of Inflammatory Response in Low-Flow States and Impaired Wound Healing
Current Medicinal Chemistry - Anti-Inflammatory & Anti-Allergy Agents Cardiovascular Risk in Patients with Primary Hyperparathyroidism
Current Pharmaceutical Design A New Phospholipase A<sub>2</sub> from Lachesis <i>muta rhombeata</i>: Purification, Biochemical and Comparative Characterization with Crotoxin B
Protein & Peptide Letters Relaxin as a Cardiovascular Hormone: Physiology, Pathophysiology and Therapeutic Promises
Cardiovascular & Hematological Agents in Medicinal Chemistry Perspectives on Therapeutic Target for Multiple System Atrophy
Recent Patents on Regenerative Medicine Agonists and Antagonists of Protease Activated Receptors (PARs)
Current Medicinal Chemistry New Patents on Topical Anesthetics
Recent Patents on Inflammation & Allergy Drug Discovery State of the Art of Nanobiotechnology Applications in Neglected Diseases
Current Nanoscience Rediscovery of Caffeine: An Excellent Drug for Improving Patient Outcomes while Fighting WARS
Current Medicinal Chemistry Headache: One of the Most Common and Troublesome Adverse Reactions to Drugs
Current Drug Safety